1.What is attitude?

Attitude, according to Gordan Allport, is the preparation or readiness to response. It is also defined as the learned response to a person or an object (attitude object) in either a favourable or an unfavourable way. For example, there is a positive attitude towards people who respect their elders.

2.What are the components of attitude?

All the components of attitude together are called the A-B-C model. Attitude has the following three main components-

Affective component: it is the component that is associated with the feeling of an individual towards the attitude object. This feeling might be pleasant or unpleasant and it is what triggers the attitude and the intensity of the behaviour.

Cognitive component: It is the component that is associated with the thoughts and beliefs of an individual towards the attitude object. A positive belief or thought about the attitude object results in a positive attitude towards that attitude object whereas a negative belief or thought about the attitude object results in a negative to negative attitude towards that attitude object.

Behavioural component: It is the component that is associated with the expression or behaviour caused from the attitude. If an individual act in a pleasant and favourable manner then the individual is likely to have a positive attitude towards the attitude object. Whereas if the person acts in an unpleasant or unfavourable manner towards the attitude object then the individual is likely to have a negative attitude towards the attitude object.

For example, a vegetarian would not like non- veg food and would believe that it tastes bad (cognitive component), hate the smell and sight of non-veg food (affective component) and hence avoid going to a non-veg restaurant (behavioural component).

3.Explain the relationship between perception and attitude.

Attitude is the person’s actual feeling or way of thinking about something, or someone based on their perception. perception is the process of understanding or comprehending the external world. If one perceives his surroundings as hostile and dangerous, his attitude towards various aspects of social world will be negative. If one perceives his world to be friendly, his attitude towards the different aspects of social world becomes positive. Thus, attitude is the resultant factor of the perception of a stimulus.

4.Explain the relationship between belief and attitude.

Belief is said to be a conviction or assumption that the individual holds true, with or without empirical proof. It includes knowledge, opinion and faith in a generic sense. Belief is the cognitive part of attitude. All attitudes have a certain kind of belief towards the object of attitude, but all beliefs do not turn into attitude.

Perception —>belief—>attitude —> behaviour

5.List the properties of attitude

[1] Valence: It states whether the attitude towards the attitude object is positive or negative.

[2] Intensity: It states the extent of extremeness of the attitude, i.e., how positive the attitude is.

[3] Simplicity or complexity: It refers to how many attitudes constitute a broader attitude . For example, attitude towards savings. This attitude may include several other like views about different ways of savings, which savings scheme gives better returns, how to increase savings, etc.

[4] Centrality: It refers how a particular attitude plays a vital role in influencing other attitudes.

6.Explain the relationship between behavior and attitude.

A person’s attitude is generally reflected in his/her behavior. This means a person expresses his/ positive or negative attitude through his/her behavior accordingly. For example, a person having a positive attitude towards his work and colleagues generally manifests favorable behaviors like discipline in work, fulfilling targets, meeting deadlines, cordial relations with seniors and colleagues, etc. On the other hand, a person having negative attitude towards his work and colleagues manifests unfavorable behaviors like lack of commitments, delays in work, etc.

WHEN ATTITUDES PREDICT BEHAVIOR

A study by Martin and Fishbein helps us to understand how attitude predicts behaviour. He states that in order to predict a specific behaviour, we should not focus on people’s overall attitude toward the object of that behaviour (driving age, for example) but-on their attitude toward the behaviour (for example, voting for lowering of age of driving). As attitude is also affected by a person’s feelings, beliefs, and behavioural intentions regarding an object not only on the object.  For example, A person wants to predict the behaviour of a teen who loves following the fashion and is always in line with fashion. There is a recent fashion trend that uses the colour neon and that teen just doesn’t like neon colours. If the person was to predict the behaviour of the teen based on their overall attitude towards recent fashion trends, then they would wrong. However, if that person sees the teen’s behaviour and attitude towards the colour neon then he/she would be able to predict the teen’s attitude.

WHEN ATTITUDES FAIL TO PREDICT BEHAVIOR

There are two main studies that help us to understand that attitude does not necessarily predict behavior : A study by La Piere in the 1930s and DeFleur & Westie in 1958.

La Pierre was interested in prejudice against the Chinese. He traveled around the United States with a young Chinese couple, keeping track of how they were received by clerks in hotels and restaurants. He found that in only one case out of 251 was the Chinese couple treated inhospitably. Six months later, La Piere obtained information about attitudes toward the Chinese by sending each hotel or restaurant they had visited a letter asking if Chinese clients would be accepted. More than 90 percent of the responses were negative.

This showed that the relationship between attitudes and behavior was extremely different; people behaved in positive manner toward the Chinese but reported that they would behave negatively.

DeFleur & Westie studied the relationship between attitudes and behavior toward blacks. On the basis of questionnaire administered to 250 white college students, two groups of subjects were selected-one highly prejudiced and one very low in prejudice. These two groups were compared on a measure of behavior toward blacks. Each student was asked if he or she would be willing to pose for a photograph with a black of the opposite sex. Students who agreed were then asked to what extent they would permit various uses of the photograph, ranging from limited exposure (only a few people would see it) to use in a national anti-segregation campaign. The more prejudiced subjects were generally less willing to have the photographs taken and exposed widely, many inconsistencies were found. More than 25% of the subjects behaved differently. Thus many “prejudiced” percent subjects agreed to have their pictures taken and used in the campaign, and many “unprejudiced” subjects refused to agree to any level of exposure.

The influence of attitude on behaviour depends on several factors, such as-

1.Situational factor: This, many times, prevents the spontaneous expressions of our attitude and restricts behaviour.

2.Motivational factors: Attitude and consequent behaviour of a person may be guided by motivational factor of the person. For example, an employee displays negative attitude engages in agitation towards his employer for a justified and better remuneration again: service. Here, the need for better living and upliftment of economic status plays the motivational factor.

7.Attitude formation through Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning involves learning based on association. How this process influences one’s attitude is elaborated by the following example,

Suppose a senior does not like a particular teacher and he/she talks bad about that teacher to their junior. Initially, the junior has a neutral attitude towards that teacher but after hearing his/her senior, classical conditioning occurs and that junior also acquired a negative attitude towards that teacher.

8.Attitude formation through Operant Conditioning

The process of operant conditioning can be used to learn or acquire attitude. Operant conditioning is a process in which all the behaviors that are rewarded are repeated and all of those that are punished are avoided. People’s behavior of rewarding others may play a major part in forming the attitude the individual has regarding the attitude object. For example, praising them or smiling and nodding at them just for stating the views which they themselves favor. For example, A child scores less marks and is punished for doing so. The child would then develop a negative attitude towards low marks in order to avoid getting punished.

9.Attitude formation through Social Comparison

Another way that our attitudes are developed is through social comparison. People often compare themselves to others in order to establish whether or not their beliefs are accurate. As a result, people frequently alter their opinions, beliefs, or attitudes to align to those of others they respect. They are reassured that their perceptions are accurate by these changes and similarities in viewpoints. For example, a person might develop his/her attitude towards a recent fashion trend based on social comparison. When he/she sees that his/her friends are against the recent fashion trend then he/she would also be against it and have a negative attitude towards it.

10.Attitude formation through Modelling

An individual picks up attitude by observing other people’s behaviors, modeling those behaviors, or mimicking them. When role models are viewed as powerful and superior or as friendly and encouraging, learning through observation is greater. A child frequently imitates the actions of his/her parents, relatives, and friends in a family or social setting. The attitude of the dominant family member toward a certain object is frequently reflected in the child’s attitude towards that particular thing. For example, a child learns to imitate attitude or behaviors towards obese people in accordance with the attitude of the most dominant prism in the family.

Attitude can also be developed without direct contact with the attitude object. This happens when the person has heard tales or stories or information about the attitude object indirectly from other sources. For example, the child develops a positive attitude towards the Hindu culture after hearing its glorying old stories.

11.How does persuasion change attitude?

Persuasion is a process in which efforts are made to change others’ attitude through the use of various kinds of messages. It includes two things that affect it, individuals – communicators and audience – and a message. The extent to which this process will be successful depends on the quality of both the two sets of individuals and the messages. Some are the following:

• 1. The credibility, confidence and skill of the communicators. Experts who are confident about what they speak and the way they present are more persuasive than non-experts.
• 2. Persuasion may be enhanced through the messages that arouse strong emotions among the audience.
• 3. The quality or attribute of the listener is an important factor in the persuasion process. Intelligent and well-informed people resist persuasion.
• 4. Messages that do not seem to intend to persuade are more persuasive.
• 5. Attractive people are better at persuading.
• 6. Fast speakers are better at persuading.
• 7. When people are inattentive or distracted, they are persuaded more easily.

12.Explain the Cognitive dissonance theory.

There are many a times when we act in ways or say things about a certain topic that is different from our attitude towards that topic. This is described as induced compliance. These situations give rise to what is called cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is an important process that leads to change in one’s attitude. It is the condition when an individual identifies inconsistency between two attitudes or between an attitude and a behaviour, this leads to the individual feeling uncomfortable and then they try to find ways to reduce this discomfort. For example, when a student knows that he/she needs to study for an exam to get marks but he/she does not study. This inconsistency between the attitude and behavior creates a condition of cognitive dissonance in the person.

Ways of reducing cognitive dissonance:

• [1] By altering or modifying knowledge – (e.g., the portions are not that much so I can still score if I study right before the exam).
• [2] By reducing the importance of the attitude or behaviour concerned (trivialisation) – (e.g., Marks do not define who I am as an individual ).
• [3] By acquiring new knowledge that justifies our attitude and behaviour – (e.g., I answer well in class so do know all my concepts. Even if I don’t study at home I will score good marks.).
• [4] Many people may not reduce the dissonance but try to reduce the negative feelings associated with it. So, they try to focus on the positive qualities in them – (e.g.,Even though I won’t get good marks because I am not studying, I am good at basketball so I can easily get into college on that basis.).

Social scientists have noticed that when an individual acts opposite to their attitude because of some significant reason, they do not feel much dissonance or discomfort. This is because they have a reason to justify their action. Hence, no attitude change is observed. However, if they act opposite to their attitude for an insignificant reason, they experience a greater dissonance. Hence, a chance of change in attitude is greater. This is called less-leads-to-more effect.

13.Explain the Balance theory.

Fritz Heider explained that a balance must exist between interpersonal relationships so that psychological harmony can be achieved.

Heider suggested that ‘likes’ and ‘dislikes’ are related to balance and imbalance. Humans search for consistency between their attitudes and relations with others to make the balance neutral. However, if there is an inconsistency between relations then they try to seek modifications to reach consistency.

Heider explained how balance theory works with the help of a model. The reactions of each individual are framed within a triangle that Heider called the P-O-X model that has a triadic relation.

Each corner of the triangle represents a different element:

P = the person to analyze

O = Other, or the comparison person

X = the third element for comparisons such as a third person, a physical object, an idea, or an event.

The relations between the individuals or objects on the P-O-X model can be either positive (+) or negative (-) and this is what can determine if a relationship is balanced.

A triadic relationship is said to be balanced when it includes either no or an even number of negative relations.

For instance, three positive relations are balanced, as well as two negative relations with one positive relationship. This would be a situation that is psychologically comfortable. In contrast, a triad is imbalanced when it includes an odd number of negative relations, such as having one negative relation and two positives. This is a situation that would be psychologically uncomfortable. For example, My friend, Elizabeth is O, I am P and X is ice-cream. I like pizza and Elizabeth but Elizabeth does not like pizza. This is a psychologically uncomfortable situation for me. However, if Elizabeth also liked pizza then this would be a psychologically comfortable situation for me.

14.Define Prejudice

prejudice is a preconceived idea or judgement towards the people of a group because they belong to that distinct social group. It is the affective component.

15.Define Stereotype

stereotype is the cognitive component of attitude which consists of beliefs about a particular social group

16.Define Discrimination

discrimination is the behavioural component of attitude which is the prejudicial treatment or behaviour of an individual towards another person

17.List and explain the causes of Prejudice – origins of it

a) Frustration and aggression

prejudices may originate due to aggression and frustration. when a person is prevented from reaching the target by something, he or she becomes frustrated which results in aggression or prejudice towards them. For example, an eligible child is not selected in the school drama by the teacher. This may make the frustrated and consequently prejudice against the teacher.       

b) Social learning

Prejudice originates through social learning. Children acquire prejudices either by hearing or observing their parents, teachers or others expressing prejudiced ideas. They learn these prejudices when they are rewarded for expressing these views. mass media like television plays an important role in shaping prejudices. For example, often films portray a particular ethnic group in the negative light, thereby leading to development of prejudice.    

c) realistic competition    

Prejudice emerges from competition among different groups with respect to various opportunities such as adequate living, proper job, etc. this view proposed that various competition leads to rivalry, hatred and prejudice. realistic conflict theory by Bobo is based on this fact. it states that when competition increases, the members of different groups start to view others as enemies. they see themselves as morally superior. it later turns into Prejudice.

D) social categorization

categorisation and labelling are also a cause of prejudice. people typically divide the social world into two discrete categories – us and them which is referred as social categorization. people are segregated as either belonging to our own group (termed as in group) or belonging to the other group (termed as out group). search distinctions are based on many dimensions such as religion, Income, etc. the human mind usually views the members of the ‘us’ group more favourably and the members of the ‘them’ group more negatively developing a prejudice against them.

E) stereotyping      

stereotypes exert a strong influence on the ways the social information about a social group is processed. people also focus on information that is consistent whereas information that is inconsistent with the stereotype is mostly ignored. as a result, stereotypes get strengthened and become resistant to change. these stereotypes lead to various prejudices towards the target social group.

18.Explain the ways in which Prejudice can be resisted.

a) inter group contact

direct contact with members of other groups (out group) help to combat stereotypes and resist prejudice and it is termed as contact hypothesis. increased contact between people belonging to different groups, allow them to identify the similarities between them which generate positive feelings and likeness towards other people intergroup contact may resist prejudice only under certain conditions such as:

I. The contact groups interacting must belong to more or less same social status

II.  The contact between them must involve cooperation and interdependence.

b) Propaganda:

Propaganda through newspapers, radio, television, movies is more effective in reducing prejudice. Studies indicate that auditory stimuli are more effective than visual stimuli, speakers are more effective than printed material, rational appeals are more effect than emotional appeal; oral propaganda is more effective in small groups than in large groups. Propaganda is also more effective when the speaker is prestigious.

c) Learning not to hate:

prejudice is a behaviour that children learn from their elders and parents who are loaded with bias and coloured viewpoints. many of them realise that they are prejudiced and develop tolerant attitude. Thus, they try to end these views and encourage more positive attitude. This ensures they unlearn their prejudiced ideas and acquire a new learning of ‘not to hate’ other out-group members.

d) Recategorization:

If the boundary between US and THEM is rescheduled and recategorized, it facilitates intergroup contact between persons. This enables the persons to interact with others and find areas of similarities between them. This might reduce prejudice. For example, in school, for inter-house sports competition, one cheers for one’s own house team, and feels prejudiced against the other house teams. But if the best players from all the teams are selected to form the school team, one cheers the school team. Hence the boundary between the us and them is not fixed and recategorizes it.

e) Education:

Various studies showed that, education makes people tolerant, socially adjust and adaptive with all groups. Education helps a person to gain knowledge and become enlighten. This enables him/her to judge every other individual as a human being having positive qualities.

19. Explain direct experience

Regan and Fazio (1977) conducted an experiment to measure the effect of directly experiencing something vs indirectly experiencing something on attitude.

Some participants played with sample puzzles before their attitudes toward the puzzles were measured. This was the direct experience condition. Other participants, in the indirect experience condition, heard an experimenter describe the sample puzzles. Then both the team’s attitudes toward the puzzles were measured. Later on, all the participants played with the puzzles. The experimenter recorded their puzzle-playing behaviour. Both direct-experience and indirect-experience groups expressed equally favourable attitudes. The direct group’s behaviour, however, was predicted much better than the indirect group’s behaviour.

20. What is attitude availability?

If an attitude is easily available to an individual then it is more likely to ‘prime’ his/her behaviour. For example, a person saw a movie in which a character gets murdered on a lonely street at night, then he/she would likely avoid roaming alone at night on a lonely street.

21. What is attitude relevance?

Relevant attitudes are a better guide to subsequent behaviour than are irrelevant attitudes. That is, the link between attitudes and behaviour is much stronger for those individuals for whom the attitude is relevant. For example, the quarrel on lowering the legal age of driving to 16 years, this is more relevant to a 16-year-old than to a 30-year-old individual.