1.What is lifespan development?

It is a process that starts at conception and continues throughout an individual’s lifespan till the moment of death.

• Why is the study of lifespan development important?
• The changes which take place during infancy, childhood and adolescence – which can be physical, cognitive, moral and socio-emotional in nature.
• It prepares parents / teachers, before time.
• It helps to evaluate the different milestones of various developmental stages.
• It helps parents to keep a check on the development of their child. If it is early development, if there is any deviation or concerns.
• It helps to give the developmental calendar of people from conception to birth.

2.What is development?

Development is concerned with growth as well as those changes in behaviour which result from environmental situations.

3.List the characteristics of development (context).

1. It is a continuous process: it begins at the time of conception and continues till death.
2. It is an individualized process: each individual person develops in a unique way. The rate of development varies at different ages and across different people.
3. It is cumulative: the development at each stage depends on the development at the prior stage. For example, child’s first step is cumulative of the child’s development of motor skills.
4. It is a consistent process: individuals differ in the rate of development but overall it follows a consistent, orderly sequence and similar pattern across individuals.
5. It is a product of interaction: hereditary and environmental factors influence the development of child. The child interacts with the environment and acquires traits from parents.

4.What is maturation?

Maturation is the process of development through which an individual reaches full functionality. Arnold Gressel.

5.Explain the Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological systems theory.

1. Microsystem: it consists of family, school, neighborhood and other structures with which the child has direct contact. It is the closet layer to the child, and it influences the child as much as a child influences it. Thus, it is a bidirectional influence.
2. Mesosystem: it is the interconnection between the various structures of the child’s micro system. For example, the connection between the child’s parent and the child’s teacher.
3. Exosystem: this layer does not involve the child directly, but involves the members of his microsystem which in turn affects him. For example, the work schedule of the parent.
4. Macrosystem: it consists of the cultural values, customs and laws that have an effect on all the systems around the child. It might be the outermost layer of child’s environment but it plays a significant role in the child’s development. For example, a government law
5. Chronosystem: the dimension of time in relation to the child’s environment constitutes the chronic system. For example, the time of death of a parent.

6.What is growth?

Growth refers to the structural and physiological changes.

7.Differentiate between growth and development.

Growth	Development
Refers to physical change	Physical and psychological changes
Means increase in height, weight, shape, size	Means all types of changes and their significance in development
Quantitative	Qualitative
After a certain age growth slows down or stops	It is a lifelong process

8.Determinants of development – hereditary and environment

Hereditary and environment both play a role in development. Hereditary also called nature refers to all the genes and genetic factors that influence our physical appearance and personality. Environment also called nurture refers to all the environmental influences that impact who we are, our childhood experiences, how we were raised, our social relationships and our surrounding culture. 

Study to prove effect of hereditary:

Schizophrenia- Gottesman- Shields’s Study in 1967. In order to determine whether a serious mental, Schizophrenia has a genetic link, Gottesman and Shield conducted twin and adoption studies. How often both twins were diagnosed with schizophrenia was compared for monozygotic identical twins and dizygotic non-identical twins. In adoption studies, the genetics and environment of biological parents and siblings were compared to adopted parents and siblings. In twin studies, the concordance rate for schizophrenia in MZ twins was 58% whereas in DZ twins it was 12%. In adoption studies, there was an increase in incidence of schizophrenia where the biological parents had schizophrenia. A normal child fostered to a Schizophrenia parent the same as normal parents adopting a Schizophrenic child showed less evidence of schizophrenia. 

Study to prove effect of environment:

Little albert- was an experiment done by Watson and Raynor in 1920.  A case study on one child ‘Little Albert’, under controlled laboratory conditions was carried out to see if it is possible to induce a fear of a previously un feared object through classical conditioning. Before the experiment little albert showed no fear response to any objects including a white rat. During the first few sessions Albert was presented a rat. Each time her reached it a steel bar was hit. After a few sessions he started reacting to the rat itself without the steel bar sound. By session 3 the fear was developed for all furry objects like fur coat or Santa hat.  Later psychologists saw that time had not removed the fear for Albert.

Study to prove effect of both:

Kevin Davies of PBS’s Nova described this. Perfect pitch is the ability to detect the pitch of a musical tone without any reference. Researchers have found that this ability tends to run in families and believe that it might be tied to a single gene. However, they’ve also discovered that possessing the gene alone is not enough to develop this ability. Instead, musical training during early childhood is necessary to allow this inherited ability to manifest itself.

Therefore, both nature and nurture play an important role in the behavior of an individual

9.What are milestones? INFANCY

Milestones – fundamental motor skill whose attainment is associated with the acquisition of later voluntary movements.

10.What is motor development?

Motor development means the gradual gaining of control over the bodily movements.

11.What are the types of motor skills? INFANCY

Types of motor skills:

• Fine (small) – involves the smaller muscles in fingers, toes, eyes and other areas. The actions that require fine more skills tend to be more intricate, such as drawing, writing, grasping, catching, etc.
• Gross (large) – involves larger muscles including arms and legs. Actions requiring gross motor skills include walking, running, balance and coordination. Experts look at strength, muscle tone, movement quality and range of movement.

12.Explain 4 new born reflexes. INFANCY

New born reflexes help in their survival until their motor development is well established.

1. Grasping: A baby can grasp an object if it is placed on the baby’s palm.
2. Moro reflex: The baby throws his/her legs and hands upwards which shows his/her need to embrace somebody in response due to a loud noise or jerk.
3. Rooting: the baby turns its head towards the stimulation on stocking the cheeks near the corner of the mouth.
4. Babinski: the baby fans the toe out on stroking the sole of the foot.

13.Explain the cognitive development theory.  INFANCY, CHILDHOOD, ADOLESCENCE

The cognitive development theory was given by Jean Piaget. According to him children are not born with cognitive abilities. They develop them by exploring the environment by perceptual and motor activities which help to build schemas. His approach is also called the constructivist approach.

It has 3 important characteristics:

• Stages are generalized as they are followed in the same pattern.
• Stages are invariant as they are followed in a fixed sequence and no stage is skipped.
• Stages are universal as all the children follow them.

Important concepts:

1. Schemas are specific psychological structures which help to make sense of experiences in an organized way.
2. Mental representation occurs when the baby is able to manipulate information mentally. It is the transfer of schemas towards cognitive actions. It is of 2 kinds – images: the mental picture of objects or people, concepts: mental categories in which objects or events are grouped together.
3. Adaptation: the process of building schemas through direct interaction with the environment. It has 2 activities. Assimilation: using present schemas to interpret the external world. For example, lizard as lizard. Accommodation: creating new schemas or adjusting the old schemas. For example, crocodile not lizard.
4. Cognitive equilibrium – when assimilation is more. Cognitive disequilibrium – when accommodation is more. The back and forth between equilibrium and disequilibrium is known as equilibration.

Stages: It has 4 stages – sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage and formal operational stage.

1. Sensorimotor stage (up to 2 years): INFANCY

Most of the baby’s behaviors occur by chance. These chance actions help to build their first schemas. The baby then repeats these actions until the schema is strengthened. This process is called circular reaction. For example, a baby who by chance makes a snacking sound after feeding, repeat it and after a few days becomes an expert at it. It has six up stages:

1. stage of reflexive schemas: birth to 1st months of age. In this stage the newborn uses various reflexes to make sense of the external world.
2. stage of primary circular reactions: 1st-4th month. In this the baby repeat’s chance behaviors like simple motor habits which are primarily guided by their basic needs. Babies differ in these behaviors.
3. stage of secondary circular reactions: 4-8 months. The baby uses circular reactions to try to induce interesting effect in the environment. They can sit up, reach out and manipulate objects.
4. stage of coordination of secondary circular reactions: 8-12 months. The baby can now combine schemas into more complex actions. They exhibit more intentional, and goal directed behavior. They develop object permanence that is a process in which children understand that objects continue to exist even when they’re out of their site. For example, games like peekaboo. They also start imitating simple behaviors like stirring the spoon.
5. stage of tertiary circular reactions: 12-18 months. The children show tertiary circular reactions that is that they repeat behaviors with variation. They use exploration methods to solve their problems and A-B search. A-B search is a process in which children search for hidden objects in different places like place A or place B.
6. stage of mental representation: 18 months to 2 years. In this stage mental representation begins. The children are able to solve simple problems thinking. This leads to deferred imitation that is the ability to remember and copy the behaviour of others who are not present. The child also engages in make-believe play that is the acting every day and imaginary activities like doctor-doctor.

2. Pre-operational stage (2-7 years): CHILDHOOD

There is a rapid increase in mental representation. The major developments are:

1. Internal images– children can store the sensorimotor experiences in the form of internal images.
2. Symbolical play– children re-create experiences in make-believe-play which gradually makes way for symbolical play in which children pretend that one object is another like a block in the car. It has three stages: a) Decentration is a process in with children initially pretend to feed themselves but with time they become less self-centered, and their actions are directed at others. b) Contextualization in which the children pretend that one object is another thing. For example, a spoon is a pen. c) Integration in which the play gradually becomes more complex in the form of social dramatically by 2.5 years. The children plan for elaborate tea parties.
3. Drawings– cognitive development is expressed through drawings which starts of as scribbles around 18 months of age. It then becomes recognizable shapes around 3 years. By 6 years it becomes more realistic drawing.
4. Egocentrism– refers to the tendency found in children to focus on their own viewpoints ignoring others perspective. Animistic thinking that is the belief that inanimate objects have human qualities. This enhances the ability of imagination and magical thinking. Egocentrism prevents children from accommodating and modifying their faulty reasoning.
5. Centration– the child is unable to conserve that is to understand that physical characteristics of an object remain unchanged even when it’s outward appearance changes because they focus on only one aspect and neglect the other aspects. For example, the child says that the amount of water when poured from a tall narrow glass into a short broad class increase.
6. Irreversibility– is the process in which children are unable to mentally go through certain steps and retrace those steps back in the reverse direction.
7. Hierarchical classification– children cannot classify things into categories and subcategories based on the similarities and differences.

3. Concrete operational stage (7-11 years): CHILDHOOD

The child’s thought becomes more logical, flexible and organized. The major developments are:

1. Decentration– The child is able to conserve that is understand that the changes in outward appearance of an object might not change the object as they’re able to focus on more than one aspect of the situation.
2. Reversibility– The child is able to mentally go back and retrace their steps. Their judgement about cause-and-effect also improves.
3. Hierarchical classification– the child can categorize objects into general and specific groups.
4. Class inclusion– child develops ability to see the relationship between a group and its subgroups.
5. Seriation– they develop the ability to arrange object along a quantitative dimension like length that is shortest to longest. They can seriate mentally too which is called transitive inference.
6. Spatial understanding– they can understand the concept of space in terms of distance and direction. By 8 years they are able to perform mental rotation that is they can align their own frame of reference to match that of another person or object in a different orientation. They can also mentally represent large scale spaces; this process is called cognitive map.

4.Formal operational stage (11 years onwards): ADOLESCENCE

This stage marks the beginning of abstract thinking. Its major developments are:

1. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning– this enables the child into deductive and inductive reasoning. Its procedure is, the child faced with a problem starts with a generalised view of different methods of solution. Then considers all the possible factors that might affect each solution to the problem. They deduce a specific hypothesis which they then test in an organised way. It has three types of reasoning:
2. Deductive reasoning in which he/she moves from abstract, general principles to specific principles.
3. Inductive reasoning in which abstract, general principles are inferred from specific events.
4. Reflective thinking in which they criticize and evaluate their own idea, solution and thought process.
5. Proportional thought– they are able to determine whether the statement is logical solely based on its wording. They do not have to recreate the actual scenario to determine
6. Abstract thoughts– as mastery over language increases abstract thoughts also increase. 
7. Cognitive distortions– abstract thinking with physical changes gives rise to different egocentrism which develops cognitive distortion. This results in thinking that they are the centre of attention to some imaginary audience. Another cognitive distortion is called personal fable. The child frames an inflated opinion of his/her importance as she/he believes that others are only observing and thinking about them. They can either reach great height of glory or sink in despair. The children struggle to establish an independent identity as they cling to these distortions. As abstract thinking becomes established and more organised cognitive distortions tend to decrease.

The advantage of this theory: Jean was the first to develop a comprehensive theory of cognitive development.

The disadvantages of this theory:

• the sample of the experiment conducted by Jean Piaget was very small and therefore the findings cannot be generalized.
• He also underestimated the cognitive capabilities of the children.
• He also underestimated the role of social context in the cognitive development of the child

14.Explain the emergence of attachment. INFANCY

Attachment is a strong affectional or emotional bond that we develop with the significant people in our lives. The attachment first develops with our primary care givers. By 6-7 months the baby identifies their parents and gives them special attention. The psychoanalytic perspective considers feeding as the most important factor in building this attachment. The physical contact between the infant and caregiver plays a key role in attachment and is called contact comfort.

15.Explain Mary Ainsworth’s test and attachment styles. INFANCY

John Bowlby explained attachment in babies and Mary Ainsworth expanded his theory and gave the different attachment styles and attachment behaviours. She devised an experiment called the strange situation test which was conducted on 100 babies age 12 to 18 months. They observed the babies on the criteria’s: if there is need to be near the caregivers and openness to explore the new situation.

The experiment has 8 stages, 3 minutes each. Its procedure is-

1. The parent and baby enter a room.
2. The parent sits with the baby in the room.
3. A stranger enters the room.
4. Parent leaves the room and the stranger is alone with the baby.
5. Parent returns and picks the baby and the stranger leaves.
6. Parent leaves the room and the child is completely alone.
7. The stranger enters the room.
8. The parent returns and the stranger leaves the room.

After observing the different response patterns of the child in the situation, she identified three attachment styles namely secure attachment, avoidant attachment and ambivalent attachment. Later on, another attachment style was added called the disorganised attachment style.

Criteria	Secure	Avoidant	Ambivalent	Disorganized or disoriented
Reaction when parent leaves	may or may not cry	do not show any distress been parent leaves	show up opposing tendencies of both clinging and resisting the parent	Often cried
Reaction when parent returns	Actively seek contact	do not show any enthusiasm when the parent returns	show anger and resistive behaviour when parent returns	when parent returns baby is confused or contradictory behaviour is seen
Reaction to stranger		may not be responsive to stranger
Soothed or not	easily soothed	do not cling to the parent	not easily comforted and continue to cry	first run up to the parent and then immediately resist to being picked. Show signs of distress or fear.
Explore the environment	Freely explore the new environment	explore environment independently	Do not explore the environment	Exploration to the environment is inconsistent
Why this style	caregivers are sensitive and respond appropriately to their needs	when caregivers are insensitive, rejecting and unavailable during times of distress	Caregivers are inconsistent in meeting the babies needs	When caregivers themselves are overloaded with some emotional problems or distress and fail to respond to the child’s needs sensitively.

16.Emergence of self – gender awareness, gender identity, stability, consistency, stereotype role, sex-category, constancy.  CHILDHOOD

The emergence of self-gender awareness in a child is in a sequential order.

I-self: In the first few months the infant finds him/herself as a separate and different entity, i.e., the develop the I-self. They realize that their reactions cause objects and people to react in certain ways. They are able to develop self-awareness when their parents encourage them to explore their surroundings. The child realizes that he/she is distinct from external reality. The child forms a relation between self and physical world when he/she throws a ball and noticed that the ball takes its distinct course. He/she develops relation between social world and self when the care giver and the child smile and vocalize with each other.

Me-self:

• during the 2nd year, that baby starts to construct the me-self, i.e., they become aware of their own physical features.
• Lewis and Brooks-Gunn found in their study that babies develop self-recognition, i.e., perception of self as a physical distinct being by 2 years.
• In their study mothers of 9-24 months old children were asked to put red dye on the nose of their children. When the younger infants of 9-12 months looked in the mirror, they were not bothered by the dot but toddlers of 15-24 months rubbed their noses indicating awareness of their unique appearances.
• The child also starts using pronouns as I, me.

Gender awareness:

• Around 2 years, the awareness of gender difference emerges.
• The understanding of the two categories of gender, male and female, mark the beginning of development of what is called gender identity.
• Around 4 years of age, they start to understand that gender is stable over time which is called gender stability. (A boy develops the idea that he will remain a boy for his entire life)
• Gender consistency generally develops at the age of about 6-7 years. This entails understanding that one’s gender will remain constant even if the behavior, dress, hairstyle of the other gender is adopted.
• This entire understanding was referred to as sex-category constant (SCC).
• As gender awareness emerges in children, he/she starts acquiring gender stereotypes, i.e., the widely held beliefs about characteristics considered appropriate for males and females. For ex, a boy must play with a care and a girl with a doll.
• By 5 years, gender stereotypes and gender roles are well established.
• They start using gender related words to describe genders. For ex, strong and tough for boy and gentle and dependent for girl.
• However, the older the child gets he/she realizes that gender stereotypes are not the defining features of a gender.
• Gender and sex – Gender means the beliefs of the society in general about the characteristics and behaviour of males and females. Sex means biologically whether a person male or female depending on their chromosome (XY or XX).

17.Emergence of peer relationship. CHILDHOOD

Peer relationships emerge due to socialization with peers of the same age. Healthy relationships pave the way for developing lasting friendships. Social skills that facilitate peer relationships consolidate in the pre-school years. During this time, peer groups become more structured in terms of number of people, both genders, a group leader, some are even get rejected. Maintaining healthy peer relationships is essential for psychological wellbeing and social adjustment in early childhood. Importance of peer relationships- 1. Peers may appreciate or criticize without arousing anxiety or guilt. 2. Peer groups help to identify skills and even encourage to improve the skills.

Sullivan proposed the five basic social needs that can be filled by peer relationships – tenderness, co-participation, acceptance by others, interpersonal intimacy and physical contacts.

School and friendship: Schools play an important role in social and emotional development of children from the age of 3 of 4 years. They help to build cognitive development, social skills and emotional skills of children. Children through school experience the first step of social development outside the home, that is to form and maintain friendships. Friendships help children to develop the social skills that are required for interpersonal relationships. The children get an opportunity to experience intense emotional bones with their friends, besides their caregivers. Friends even play a protective role of preventing friends from being bullied.

The following are the characteristics in children’s friendships:

• Friends have strong emotional ties to each other
• Friends corporate and help each other more than they do with others
• Since the judge themselves as equals, they are less competitive and also do not dominate each other
• Friends are more similar to each other and express more of mutual liking, closeness and loyalty

18.Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. CHILDHOOD

Lawrence Kohlberg gave the Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. He extended on the theory of moral development by Jean Piaget. He used 2 hours interviews on 22 Chicago boys aged 10-16 years in which people were given moral dilemmas, i.e., situations that evoke conflicts between two moral values. For example, the Heinz situation. In this Heinz’s wife is dying from a rare form of cancer, and the only medication that can save her is extremely expensive. Heinz cannot afford to pay for the medication, so he breaks into a pharmacy to steal it. He is caught by the police and brought to court. The judge must decide what to do with Heinz.

He stated that moral development of a child proceeds in sequential stages. This theory has 3 levels each divided into 2 stages.

1. Pre-conventional level of moral development: in this their morality are based largely on consequences of certain actions.

a. Stage 1 – obedience and punishment of orientation: the morality is based solely in terms of the consequences of his actions. The actions that lead to rewards are acceptable and those that lead to punishment are unacceptable. They care a lot about appreciation by parents.

b. Stage 2 – self-interest orientation: morality is based on self-interest and considerations of what others can do for them in return. The child does only those actions which put himself in a good position.

For example, In the Heinz situation, the people who choose that Heinz shouldn’t steal the drug because stealing is wrong.

2. Conventional level of moral development: in this their morality is based on societal rules, laws and norms.

a. Stage 3 – good boy-good girl orientation: a child conforms to the social norms and behaves to get societal approval. The good boy- good girl orientation sets in with the individual’s desire to gain approval of others by being a ‘good person’.

b. Stage 4 – social order – maintaining orientation: the child knows exactly what is right or wrong. They consider law as the essence of morality. Slowly they develop a set of moral principles for their own actions.

For example, In the Heinz situation, the people who choose that Heinz should steal the drug but go to jail for it according to the society’s rules.

3. Post-conventional level of moral development: in this their morality is based on their own perspective rather than the societal view.

a. Stage 5 – social contract orientation: the child does not consider society’s rules as rigid edicts (an official order given by an authority) but as social contracts (agreement having certain terms that may change). They adapt those rules that are suitable and good for them.

b. Stage 6 – universal ethical principle orientation: the individual considers the universal principles of respect, justice and equality. The child forms their own abstract universal ethical principles on which the morality is based on.

For example, In the Heinz situation, the people who choose that Heinz should steal the drug and not go to jail for it. They value their own opinion as opposed to the society’s opinion.

• Define adolescence.

The period that follows the onset of puberty is referred to as adolescence. This period is sometimes called the spring of life and sometimes refer to as a transitional stage of physical and psychological development in human beings.

19.Physical changes at puberty. ADOLESCENCE

Physical development during puberty is affected both by heredity and environmental factors. The following physical changes observed during puberty:

1. Biological changes- it includes acceleration of skeletal growth, muscle growth and development of primary sex characteristics. It signifies the maturing of a child’s body into an adult body that is capable of sexual reproduction. Hormone secretion increases and secondary sex characteristics are developed.

2. Glandular changes- during this period, secretion from different glands leads to the growth (growth spurt), shaping of bone and muscles, development of secondary sex characteristics.

3. Changes in body size- in terms of height and weight, puberty leads to rapid growth for both males and females.

4. Body proportions- certain parts of the body become proportionally big due to rapid growth of the body during this period. For example, shoulder broaden out.

20.Explain Socio-emotional development. ADOLESCENCE

During adolescence, boys and girls experience extra social pressures. As a result, most of them experience heightened emotionality. Thus, adolescence has been thought of as a period of ‘storm and stress’.

The usual causes of this mainly lie in the following factors:

1. Their social roles and responsibilities change which compels then to adjust their old habits and start playing new roles at home, school and society. This emotionally overwhelms them.

2. Adolescents develop a lot of attraction and curiosity about the opposite sex and are often confused about their correct social behaviour towards the opposite sex. Such confusion emotionally disturbs them.

3. Sometimes parents’ behaviour and their attitudes make these children rebellious.

4. As they grow older, they start questioning the already learnt values and beliefs which leads to differences in opinion and conflicts with parents and grandparents.

5. Society expects them to play age-appropriate roles as well as act with appropriate responsibility like an adult. Such discrepancy between expectation and reality creates a-lot of tension for them.

21.Explain forming an identity as a socio-emotional development. ADOLESCENCE

By adolescence, self awareness, self concept(set of abilities, attitudes and values that individual believes, describe who he/she is) and self -esteem (judgement person makes about his own worth and feelings associated with those judgments) are consolidated.

They start questioning who they are, what they value,etc. which marks the beginning of search for identity.

Identity formation means developing a well organized conception of self made up values, beliefs and goals to which one individual is solely committed.

Erik Erikson first recognized that adolescents identity formation starts during adolescence. He also stated that the ‘identity crisis’ which adolescence suffer for a temporary period is due to the increasing complexities of the society.

James Marcia propounded the concept of four identity statuses.

Adolescents may move between these stages. Every individual may not reach the final stage. The identity status may not even be static as they are exposed to many inputs. These statuses are also considered as categories:

Criteria	Identity diffusion	Identity foreclosure	Identity moratorium	Identity achievement
Committed or not to a goal	Not committed	Committed	Not reached any definite commitments in terms of goals	Have set self-chosen values and goals
Exploration of alternatives	Do not explore alternatives to reach goals	Do not explore various alternatives	They are in process of exploration of various alternatives	Explore different alternatives
Identity searching for well being	This task is threatening and complex	They accept and choose the readymade identity chosen by their authority figures like parents	They gather information and try out activities to know their goals which gives them a sense of psychological well being	They feel a sense of well-being and know the goal, they want tot reach

22.Explain dealing with sexuality and gender identity as a socio-emotional development. ADOLESCENCE

Developing new and more mature relationship with members of the opposite sex is another significant milestone. This development comes not only from social pressure but also their growing interest and curiosity about sex. They become more prone to idealism in romance. They try to get attention and approval of the opposite sex which leads to the development of their heterosexuality.

An important part of adolescence is gender intensification during which their gender stereotypes behaviour and attitudes increases. Gender intensification is associated with biological, social and cognitive development of the individual. Greater concern with what others think, make the adolescents act more according to the gender roles.

23.Explain delinquency as a major concern.

Delinquency refers to the socially disapproved behaviors carried out by children in the age range 7-18 years. These behaviors violate the rules and regulations of society and require punishment or corrective actions.  For example, theft, violence, assault, etc. There are several factors that affect it:

a. Personal factors –

• Brain damage – brain damage coupled with less degree of mental retardation leads to delinquents and impulsive activities. 
• Dissatisfied needs – when the individual fails to fulfil his needs due to lack of competencies or different socio-economic barriers, he tries to meet his demands by indulging in delinquent acts.
• Immediate satisfaction of needs – to avoid the pain or difficult paths to meet their desired goals, they often engage in delinquent acts.
• Drug abuse – delinquency is very common among drug addicts as addiction incurs a lot of expenses and therefore stealing becomes common in males and prostitution is common in females.

b. Family factors

• Broken homes – delinquents often belong to broken homes, either having a single parent, or step parents. Unstable family situations make a child tense, aggressive and violent.
• Faulty parental attitude and rejection – lack of parental warmth and their excessive rigidity and aggressiveness may lead to development of delinquent tendencies among their children. Children may learn certain delinquent behaviours by observing their delinquent parents.
• Undesirable peer group – a number of male as well as female adolescents sometimes act in socially disapproved way. This happens mainly due to peer pressure.

c. Social factors

• Alienation and rebellious – teenagers become involved in different antisocial activities due to their sense of alienation from cultural values. Lack of values or belief system implies lack of internal control of where to stop. This happens cause of inappropriate parenting, burning influence of media, improper morality, lack of patience and empathy.
• Few or no proper educational opportunities – high expenditure associated with education, lack of proper educational provisions, many individuals are not able to fulfil their career goals.  So, these individuals often resort to delinquent acts like stealing, intoxication.
• Activities in gang – this refers to organized group activities that work deliberately to violate social norms. This is very common in adolescents belonging to lower economic strata.

Treatment –

• Reformatory homes, juvenile homes and institutionalization are being used to rehabilitate delinquents.
• Different rehabilitation Al techniques along with counselling, vocational guidance, formal and informal schooling, moral and value training, yoga and relaxation techniques are also used as during rehabilitation.
• Different psychological therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy, group therapy, etc. are used in treating these individuals.

24.Explain substance abuse (drugs and alcohol) as a major concern.

Substance abuse is a maladaptive pattern of substance use (mainly drugs and alcohol).

It results in repeated, significant, adverse effects and maladaptive behaviours like failure to function properly at school, home, other social gatherings, repeated use of drugs in hazardous ways, repeated legal problems like fighting on roads, continued use of drugs and alcohol despite its behaviours effects on social relationships.

Drugs are chemical substances that produce gross changes in functioning of biological systems and state of consciousness.

Persons start having strong need for drugs or alcohol, once they start consuming them on a regular basis. This is called dependence. It is of two kinds:

1. Physiological dependence- It means person has the strong desire to have the drugs or alcohol to induce certain physiological changes like changes in metabolism. This is also called addiction.

2. Psychological dependence – It means increased desire to continue drugs or alcohol even when the person does not need it physiologically.

Sudden stoppage of usage of the drug or alcohol, in this case, may lead to certain psychological symptoms (state of uneasiness, irritation, reduced concentration, reduced capacity to experience pleasure) and physiological symptoms (vomiting, seizures, hallucinations). These symptoms together are called withdrawal symptoms.

Continued use of drugs or alcohol over a long period of time leads to tolerance. This means the person requires larger amount of the substance to produce the same effects.

Effects-

• Mood lability – frequent mood fluctuations, heightened emotions
• Cognitive impairment- lowered functioning of brain, abnormal perception and communication skills
• Impaired judgment – irrational thinking that may have fatal consequences
• Impaired social functioning – inappropriate social behaviour, tendency towards violence.
• Disturbance in sleep
• They prefer to remain alone and undisturbed.

Treatment:

• Psychological treatment – counselling, group therapy and family therapy also aversion therapy. Aversion therapy involves providing the substance abuser with the drink along with another medicine that might induce feelings of nausea.
• Strong parent – child relationship also acts as a shield to substance abuse.

25.Explain eating disorders – bulimia, anorexia as a major concern

Adolescents adopt maladaptive and inconsistent habits due to desperate efforts to control body weight. This is leads to the following eating disorders:

a. Anorexia Nervosa –

It is very common among people between 10 to 30 years of age. The person who suffers from this has an intense fear of weight gain and they engage in abnormal pattern of eating and dieting. They are so sacred of weight gain that even if they weigh below normal and suffer from malnutrition, they avoid normal diet. They not only inflict pain but also damage to their bodies and physiological systems. It starts from social pressure to fit into a particular accepted ideal body image (conception and attitude towards one’s physical appearance). As the disorder sets in their perception, the body size and body shape perception become distorted which is known as body image distortion. They develop a phobia called Pocrescophobia in which they fear that they are gaining weight and becoming fat. They think reduction of food intake is the only solution to get rid of the stress. It is more common among female adolescents as girls have a greater societal pressure to fit into the ideal body. In its extreme condition, patients need serious medical treatment.

b. Bulimia Nervosa-

It is characterized by episodic, uncontrolled, large and rapid intake of food, i.e., binge eating, accompanied by inappropriate compensatory methods to prevent weight gain. It is associated with lack of self-control to resist eating excessive amounts of food due to negative emotions like sadness, anger and anxiety. They use various odd and unhealthy methods to maintaining body weight and shape. The most common methods are self-induced vomiting after intake of food, purging (cleansing the body from within) with laxatives, fasting for a day or more, taking medicines to avoid weight gain, etc. Psychological therapies like behavior therapy and cognitive therapy are employed to treat this disorder.