1.Define intelligence according to David Wechsler.

Intelligence, as defined by David Wechsler, is the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with his/her environment.

2.What are the old and new theories?

Old – Two factor, PMA, Fluid and crystallized, intellect model 

New – multiple intelligence, triarchic

3.Explain the two-factor theory.

Charles Spearman stated that intelligence consists of two kinds of abilities or factors – general and specific.

He referred the general mental ability as the ‘g’ factor which common to all intellectual activities. He referred the specific mental ability as the ‘s’ factors which are required for various specific intellectual activities. For example, a person scores average marks in maths, chemistry, biology, physics but scores a full in art. This implies that he/she has a common mental ability of intelligence for those subjects but a specific mental ability for art.

He postulated his two-factor theory of intelligence on the correlation he found between the g and s factors. He referred intelligence as – Intelligence = g+s1+s2+…. +sn. g means general mental ability, s1 to sn mean the no. Of specific mental ability.

A few characteristics of g factor are the following: it is inborn, it is constant for all activities, it differs from individual to individual.

A few characteristics of s factor are the following: it is learned through interaction with environment, varies from activity for activity, individuals differ in the degree of s factor.

It was praised for showing the importance of general intelligence in all activities. Its g factor notion supported the concept of standardized IQ tests.

It was criticized for its inability to show different types of abilities like artistic or musical ability. He was unable to explain group factors.

4.Explain the primary mental abilities (PMA) theory.

As proposed by L.L.Thurstone, this theory states that there are different sets of common mental abilities that constitute different groups, and each group is guided by a single primary factor. The primary factor gives a kind of functional unity to the common mental abilities and is referred as the primary mental abilities (PMA).

These PMA consist of the following factors: – (NVS MW RIP – my way of remembering it)

Numerical factor (N) is the ability to do numerical calculations rapidly, verbal factor (V) is the ability of verbal comprehension and formulating verbal ideas. Spatial visualization (S) is the ability to manipulate an object imaginatively in space. Memory (M) is the ability to memorize quickly. Inductive reasoning (RI) is the ability to infer or conclude on the basis of specific instances. Word fluency is the ability to think of isolated words rapidly. Perceptual speed (P) is the ability to quickly perceive objects accurately.

Its advantage is that it helped in the construction of several test batteries like the WAIS.

Its criticism is that it completely rejects the common g factor.

5.Explain the fluid and crystallized theory.

Raymond Cattell viewed intelligence as being of two kinds – fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.

Fluid intelligence refers to our largely inherited abilities to think and reason. It is used for learning and problem solving. It is dependent on neurological development and is not affected by education and culture. It is used in situations where adaptation, understanding, reasoning is needed. It is completely developed by the end of adolescence.

Crystallized intelligence refers to accumulated knowledge on the basis of information we store over a lifetime from various experiences. It also includes intellectual competence, which is reflected in one’s vocabulary, general knowledge, etc.

As one ages, fluid intelligence declines but crystallized intelligence maintains its level or increases gradually.

The concept has helped to develop various tests of intelligence such as Cattell’s culture fair test and Ravens progressive which assess fluid. WAIS measures both fluid and crystallized intelligence.

It does not throw light on the specific factor which determines the uniqueness of the intelligence level.

6.Explain the Structure of Intellect model.

J.P.Guilford gave us the structure of intellect model of intelligence. He suggested that intelligence is composed of three dimensions – operations, contents, products. Intelligence is divided into 180 (6*5*6) factors. Intelligence is classified as the following:

• Operation which denotes the way of processing of knowledge. It is of 6 types – cognition, memory recording, memory retention, convergent thinking, divergent thinking and evaluation.  
• Content which denotes what the individual knows. It is of 5 kinds – visual, auditory, semantic, symbolic and behavioral.  
• Product refers to the end result. It is of 6 kinds – units, classes, relations, systems, transformations and implications.

This model has the following principles:

1. Reasoning and problem-solving skills which requires divergent and convergent production, in total 60 distinct activities. 30 (6 products *5 contents) related to divergent and another 30 related to convergent.
2. Memory skills which require memory recording and memory retention, in total 60 distinct activities. 30 (6 products *5 contents) related to memory recording and another 30 related to memory retention.
3. Decision making which requires the evaluative skills of operations, in total 30 distinct activities (6 products * 5 contents)
4. Linguistic Skills which require cognitive operations, in total 30 distinct activities (6 products * 5 contents).

This model provides the most comprehensive classification of mental abilities. Although it is highly time consuming.

7.What is information processing?

Information processing approach emphasis the processing of information received from the environment.

8.Explain the theory of multiple intelligence.

Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligence. It states that there is a wide range of cognitive abilities as expressed by different types of intelligence. He had initially listed 6 types but later 4 more were added.  

1. Linguistic intelligence: This refers to well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sound, meaning and rhythm of words-both verbal and written. It is high in authors, poets, etc.
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence: This refers to the ability to think conceptually and abstractly. It also includes the capacity to solve logical and numerical problems. It is high in scientists, engineers, computer programmers, etc.
3. Spatial-visual intelligence: This refers to the ability to think of images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly. It is high in sailors, sculptors, painters, architects, etc.
4. Bodily Kinesthetics intelligence: This refers to the ability to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skilfully. It is seen in athletes, dancers, surgeons, etc.
5. Musical intelligence: This refers to the ability produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, timbre, and tone. It is demonstrated in composers, concert conductors, musicians, music instrument makers, etc.
6. Interpersonal intelligence: This is the capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations and desires of others and interact with others effectively. It is evident teachers, social workers, politicians, etc.
7. Intrapersonal intelligence: This is the capacity to be self- aware and be in tune with ones own inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes.
8. Naturalist intelligence: This refers to the sensitivity towards plants, animals and other aspects of natural world like clouds, rivers etc. It is seen in botanists, farmers, hunter, ecologists, etc.

This theory lacks empirical and factual evidence and it is highly dependent on subjective judgement.

9.Explain the triarchic theory.

Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence. It suggests three basic forms or dimensions of intelligence- componential, experiential and contextual.

1. Componential/ Analytic intelligence: it involves the ability to think critically and analytically. It helps an individual to take problems apart, analyse it and then provide solutions to it. This intelligence has 3 components. First is the knowledge acquisition component, which is responsible for learning and acquiring the ways of doing various things. The second is the meta or a higher order component which involves planning regarding what to do and how to do. The third is the performance component, which involves actually doing things. For example, scientists are high on this aspect of intelligence.

2. Experiential/Creative intelligence: It involves insight, ability to generate new ideas. This intelligence helps the individual to find a solution to a problem using previous experience. This kind of intelligence is found in many scientific geniuses and inventors.

3. Contextual/Practical intelligence: This involves strong practical and adaptive sense in solving the problems of daily life. They find their solutions through the three processes of-[i] adapting to the environment, [ii] modifying the existing environment and [ili] selecting a more favourable environment. They are ‘street smart people with excellent ‘business sense’.

This theory is an integration of the best elements of all existing theories.

10.List the classification of intelligence tests.

• Language based test/ verbal test in which every step of questioning and answering is based on language. For example, Binet -Simon test.
• Performance test/ non-verbal test in which the subject has to perform something or manipulate some concrete materials without much use of a language ability. For example, Cattell’s Culture Fair Test.
• Individual test in which the test can be administered to only one individual at a time. For example, WAIS. 
• Group test in which the test may be administered to a large group of people simultaneously. For example, Raven’s Progressive Matrices.
• Age scale scoring is a scoring method which involves awarding credits for correct responses in age. Then the scores are compared with the individuals chronological age to derive is level of Intelligence. For example, Stanford Binet intelligence test.
• Point scale is scoring methods in which the score of an individual is measured directly for his/her test performance in the given test. Points are awarded for every correct response. For example, WAIS. 
• Speed test consists of a large number of easy questions which have to be answered within a small amount of time.
• Power test consist of a significant amount of time to finish but the questions are more difficult.

11.What is IQ?

William Stern proposed and termed the concept of IQ. IQ stands for Intelligence Quotient. It helps to understand the intellectual capacity at which the individual is functioning at. It’s formula is: IQ = MA/CA * 100. In this MA stands for the mental age which is the persons score in the test. CA stands for the chronological age.

• Average : 5/5 *100 = 100
• Below average : 2/5 * 100 = 40
• Above average : 8/5 * 100 = 160

12.What is mental age?

Is the age that is calculated from the person’s score in an intelligence test.

13.What is chronological age?

Is the actual age which comes from one’s date of birth.

14.Explain the Wechsler adult intelligence scale.

David Wechsler, in 1939 developed a scale for measuring intelligence. The WAIS is an individual test. It is used for 16 to 64 years and takes one hour. It consists of two parts; the verbal part has six tests and non-verbal or performance part has five tests which require a minimum of language. He called the test WAIS for adults and WISC for children. The WISC is used to identify children suffering from various learning disabilities.

S.No.	Test	Description
	Verbal tests
1.	Information	29 questions are given, which intend to test a recall of knowledge concerning wider varieties of information. (general knowledge)
2.	Comprehension	14 items which intend to measure understanding of knowledge concerning a certain object, event or the meaning of proverbs. (common sense and practice intelligence)
3.	Arithmetic	14 arithmetical problems which intend to measure numerical ability, given orally and are to be solved through mental manipulation. No paper and pencil allowed. (simple calculation and reasoning)
4.	Similarities	13 items which intend to measure abstract verbal reasoning, require the examinees to compare two objects and determine the relationship between the two. (identifies relationship between objects and concepts)
5.	Digit Span	Intends to measure meaning for digits. In the first part, the examinee is required to repeat in the same order 3 to 9 digits presented in a forward direction and in the second part, he is required to repeat the digit in a backward direction. (attention and memory)
6.	Vocabulary	Intends to measure verbal ability, 40 words of increasing difficulty are presented, and the examinee is required to tell their meaning. (meaning of words)
	Performance scale
7.	Digit symbol	9 digits each with different symbols are given. The numbers in jumbled order are given and the examinee is to write the matching symbols with each digit.
8.	Picture Completion	Measures the ability to analyze parts from the whole. 21 cards each containing a picture from which something is missing – the teste is required to fill in the missing part. (identifying missing parts)
9.	Block design	Intends to measure the ability to analyze the complex whole. (arranging colored blocks)
10.	Object assembly	Examinees attempt to solve picture puzzles.
11.	Picture arrangement	Examinees fill in small boxes with coded symbols corresponding to a number above each box. (Arrange six sets of pictures to make a sensible story

15.What is a culture fair test?

A culture fair or culture free test is a test that is standardized for application to all cultures without any cultural bias.

16.Explain Raven’s Progressive matrices.

Raven’s progressive mattresses or RMP is a non-verbal, cultural fair, group test. It was originally developed by John C. Raven in 1938. RMP is constructed for adults and children. In each Matrix the subject is asked to identify the missing element from the given 6-8 options that complete a pattern.

It checks the individuals educative and reproductive ability. educative ability is a clear-thinking ability which helps to make sense of a complex situation. Reproductive ability is the ability to store and reproduce learnt information. It is of three forms:

• Standard Progressive Matrices (average 6 to 80-year-old)
• Colored Progressed Matrices (younger, elderly, learning disabilities)
• Advanced Progressive Matrices (above average adolescents & adults)

Standard Progressive Matrices: These were the original form of the matrices, first published in 1938. The booklet comprises five sets (A to E) of 12 items each (e.g. A1 to A12), with items within a set becoming increasingly difficult, requiring greater cognitive capacity to encode and analyze information. All items are presented in black ink on a white background.

Colored Progressive Matrices: Designed for younger children, the elderly, and people with moderate or severe learning difficulties, this test contains sets A and B from the standard matrices, with a further set of 12 items inserted between the two, as set Ab. Most items are presented on a colored background to make the test visually stimulating for participants. However, the very last few items in set B are presented as black-on-white — in this way, if participants exceed the tester’s expectations, transition to sets C, D, and E of the standard matrices is eased.

Advanced Progressive Matrices: The advanced form of the matrices contains 48 items, presented as one set of 12 (set I), and another of 36 (set II). Items are again presented in black ink on a white background and become increasingly difficult as progress is made through each set. These items are appropriate for adults and adolescents of above average intelligence.

17.Explain Gifted children.

According to Prem Pasricha (1964): The gifted child is the one who exhibits superiority in general intelligence or the one who is in possession of special abilities of a high order in the fields which are not necessarily associated with a high intelligence quotient.

Characteristics of gifted children:

• The gifted child is essentially an exceptional child.
• In comparison to children of his own group, he is superior in some ability or group of abilities.
• In most cases, the gifted child invariably exhibits superior performance only in the area or areas of his giftedness.
• The appellation “gifted children” is applicable to not only the academically talented but also to those who show promise in other spheres such as: (a) Music, dance. Drama, painting, sculpture, writing and other creative arts, (b) mechanical work. (c) Social leadership and human relationships (d) Creative scientific experimentation and exploration (e) Physical activities like games, sports and gymnastics.
• A gifted child need not necessarily possess a very high intelligence quotient.
• If he receives proper attention and opportunity for self-expression and development, the gifted child can make noteworthy contribution to the welfare of society, the nation and humanity at large.
• Performs difficult mental task.
• Is alert, keenly observant and responds quickly.

18.Explain Backwardness

the child is diagnosed as backward (below average individual) when his/her intelligent quotient is below 70. It signifies below average intellectual functioning and lack of the skills necessary for day-to-day life. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, version IV (DSM – IV) has classified backward children into four categories. The following are:

• Mild – IQ range (50 – 70)
• Moderate – IQ range (35 – 49)
• Severe – IQ range (20 – 34)
• Profound – IQ range – Below 20

Functional areas	Mildly retarded		Moderately Retarded		Severely retarded		Profoundly retarded
Intellectual level	Comparable to an average 10-year-old in adult life		Comparable to an average 6-year-old in adult life		Comparable to an average 4-year-old in adult life		Comparable to an average 2-year-old in adult life
Academics	Slow learners in school, repeat early grades, educable		Inadequate academic skill, not educable but trainable		Lack academic skills, neither trainable nor educable		Neither trainable nor educable
Social skills	They have friends and adjust fast	Social adjustment comparable to an adolescent	Might have friends	Face difficulty in social situations	Do not have any social interaction	Need constant supervision and are often institutionalized	Do not have any social interaction	Need complete care and supervision and institutionalized
Motor skill development	Delayed development in early life, development milestones are around a year delayed		Appear clumsy in movements, do not have motor coordination		Have severe motor retardation from birth, show motor handicaps, never master basic skills of feeding and dressing		Shows gross motor incoordination, unable to protect themselves, usually have physical deformities, convulsive seizures.
Speech and Communication	It is adequate but disturbed		Can understand and express themselves with problem		Can understand instructions but have difficulty in expressing themselves due to speech retardation		Have severe speech disturbance, in both understanding and expressing
Mortality rate	Live to full gown adult life with help during stress		Live to be adults dependent on others		High rate as they are susceptible to diseases		Short life span due to low resistance
Vocational adjustment	Can do unskilled work, lack innovation and enthusiasm		Can work in sheltered situations under constant supervision.		Can be manual labor with proper care, timely intervention and specialized training.		Completely dependent on others and need constant care

19.What is EQ and its characteristics?

Emotional Quotient, EQ as proposed by Peter Salovey and John D Mayer states that it is a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s own thinking and action. A person with high IQ:

1. would be able to perceive and be sensitive to his own feelings and emotion.
2. would be able to notice non-verbal cues like body language, facial expression, etc.
3. would be able to control and regulate his own emotions and their expression both within himself and while dealing with others.

20.Explain the relation between creativity and intelligence.

 Terman, in 1920 concluded that an intelligent person might not necessarily be a creative person and vice versa.

Creativity	Intelligence
Person who is able to improvise novel and original ways of doing things which are often aesthetically very pleasing, can think of out of the box and solve problems in a non-traditional way.	Person who is able to grasp information quickly, comprehend instructions accurately and reproduce information gathered.
Involves divergent thinking	Involves convergent thinking

21.What is aptitude?

Aptitude refers to special abilities in a particular field of activity. It is a combination of characteristics that indicates an individual’s capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or skill after training.

22.What are the uses of aptitude tests?

Through aptitude tests the students overall future performances and the range of mental abilities can be measured. It’s used are:

• Learning ability can be measured
• Highlight the specific talent
• Compare two children’s performance
• Career counselling
• Selecting individuals for the job (vocational selection)
• Admission test / admission selection
• Guidance / Vocational guidance
• Prediction

23.Explain GATB

It is the most popular aptitude test. It was developed and used first in the United States Employment Services.

It consists of 12 tests measuring 9 different aptitudes. It takes about 2.5 hours to administer this test.

The aptitudes that are measured by the General Aptitude Test Battery are as follows:

• G – General Learning Ability: The ability to catch on or understand instructions and underlying principles, the ability to reason and make judgements. Closely related to doing well in school.
• V – Verbal aptitude: The ability to understand the meaning of words and to use them effectively. The ability to understand relationships between words and to understand the meaning of whole sentences and paragraphs.
• N- Numerical Aptitude: The ability to perform arithmetic operations quickly and accurately.
• S- Spatial Aptitude: The ability to think visually of geometric forms and to comprehend the two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional objects. The ability to recognize the relationships, resulting from the movement of objects in space.
• P-Form Perception: The ability to perceive pertinent details in objects or in pictorial or graphic material. Ability to make visual comparisons and discriminations and see sight differences in shapes and shading of figures and widths and lengths of lines.
• Q-Clerical Perception: The ability to perceive detail in verbal or tabular material. Ability to observe differences in copy, to proofread words and numbers and to avoid perceptual errors in arithmetic computation.
• K- Motor Co-ordination: The ability to coordinate eyes and hands or fingers rapidly and accurately in making precise movements with speed. Ability to make movement response accurately and swiftly.
• F- Finger Dexterity: The ability to move fingers and manipulate smaller objects with fingers, rapidly or accurately.
• M- Manual Dexterity: The ability to move hands easily and skillfully. Ability to work with hands in placing and turning motions.

See the 12 different tests from the textbook.

24.What is achievement?

Achievement according to Tuckman is defined as the extent to which the person has acquired or achieved certain information or proficiency as a function of instruction or training. It is known as proficiency test.

25.What are the uses of achievement tests?

It’s uses are:

• It can be used by education boards.
• It can be used to identify the weakness or the problem of a learner.
• It can be used to identify any weakness in the training program.

26.What is interest?

Interest according to Bingham is defined as a tendency to become absorbed in an experience and to continue it.

27.What are the uses of interest tests?

Through interest tests the interest pattern of individuals can be measured. It’s uses are:

• Guidance – Interest assessment can be used for the purpose of guidance in selecting subjects for studying in schools and colleges. It can be used for selecting the profession of a person’s choice. Psychologists and counsellors supplement the results of an interest test with intelligence test, school records, interview and interest tests.
• Vocational selection / selection for jobs – it can be used for selecting a profession or proper career planning by discovering the abilities they possess. The employers can use interest assessment for selecting persons for different jobs.
• Counselling (Educational counselling) – Interest assessment is used for counselling individuals who are looking for occupation or who want assistance in the choice of vocational training. It also helps to determine vocational abilities of a person and interpret test scare in terms of a wide range of occupations. Counsellors use interest assessment for score scientific vocational guidance, with respect to future success showing areas where improvements required.
• Identifying special interest: Assessing interest helps to identify special talents in different fields like art, music, sports, etc. and can help to train for future success knowing one’s strengths and weakness as abilities.
• Prediction: Interest tests are used to predict success in various specific professions.
• It helps in the admission for professional or special course.

28.List the differences between aptitude and achievement test.

APTITUDE TEST	ACHIEVEMENT TEST
1. Aptitude tests measure an individual’s innate potential which enables him to perform any kind of activity.	1. Achievement tests measures the level of expertise a person has acquired in a task after training
2. Aptitude tests are designed to help candidates choose from amongst various careers by discovering their innate talents and possibilities of interest.	2. Achievement tests are designed to find out how much the students have learnt after training.
3. If a test is administered to predict an individual’s performance, then it is considered an aptitude test.	3. When a test is used to find out an individual’s accomplishments in any area, it should be considered as an achievement test.