1.What is personality according to Gordan Allport?

It is the dynamic organization within an individual’s psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to the environment.

2.What is personality according to Raymond Cattell?

It is that which permits a prediction of a what a person might do in a given situation.

3.What is personality according to Eysenck?

It is the more or less stable and enduring organization of a person’s character, temperament, intellect and physique which determines his unique adjustments to the environment.

4.What is temperament?

It is a person’s more less stable or enduring organization of effective behavior (emotions).

5.What is trait?

An individual’s tendency to act, think and feel in a specific way across various times and situation is called his or her trait.

6.What is disposition?

The way an individual normally sees the world, that is his or her positive or negative attitude towards life in general that influences his way of thinking, feeling and acting towards everything in life is his or her disposition or mood.

7.What is character?

It comprises of all the individual ‘s personality traits that are formed by his a moral, social and religious attitude.

8.What are habits?

An individual’s tendency to respond in a specific way to a certain stimulus every time he/she is faced with it. 

9.What are values?

Value refers to an individual’s cognitive structures that affects the choices he makes based on the moral compass of right or wrong.

10.What is self-concept?

An individual’s evaluation of himself/herself is his/her self-concept.

11.Define type and trait theories. 

Type theories are those theories that are box like and an individual can either have one characteristic or another. For example, either an introvert or an extrovert.

Trait theories are the theories that are more dynamic. An individual can lie anywhere on a spectrum. For example, they can be an introvert but also have few extrovert qualities, an ambivert or an introverted extrovert. 

12.Explain the Hippocrates theory.

The Hippocrates theory consists of four temperaments.

They believed that the four temperaments are affected and influenced by four bodily fluids which affect our personality and behaviour.

Personality type	Fluid type	Organ	Element	Personality
Choleric	Yellow bile	Spleen	Fire	Irritable, extrovert, bad-tempered, impulsive, restless
Melancholic	Black bile	Gall bladder	Earth	Depressed, serious, quiet, introvert, cautious
Sanguine	Blood	Liver	Air	Optimistic, sociable, talkative, pleasure- seeking, leader-like
Phlegmatic	Phlegm	Lungs	Water	Calm, Peaceful, inward, private, relaxed

13.Explain the Sheldon type theory

William Sheldon derived three basic types of body structures which together are called somatotype. Endomorph, Mesomorph and Ectomorph. He then reported the three personality types of each body type – viscerotonia, somatotonia, cerebrotonia.

Somatotype	Physical structure and physical characteristics	Personality characteristics
Endomorph	Soft and round, underdeveloped bones and muscles, highly developed body fatty viscera and lax abdomen	Social, affectionate, lazy
Mesomorph	Sturdy and muscular structure, broad shoulders, slender waist	Active, reckless, aggressive, self-assertive
Ectomorph	Weak and frail, Narrow shoulder, Stringy muscles	Pessimistic, unsocial, lack of self- confidence, seek solitude.

14.Explain the Friedman’s theory

Meyer Friedman developed a theory of personality – Type A and later as a contrast Type B was added.

Type A	Type B
Competitive	Enjoy achievements
Time urgency	Flexible in planning
Ambitious and multi tasked	Often lazy
Take on more they can handle	More relaxed
Want other people get to the point	More reflective
Rigidly organized	Sometimes creative

15.Explain the Kretschmer’s theory

Ernst Kretschmer observed a strong relation between physical and mental structure.

Personality type	Physical characteristics	Personality characteristics
Pyknik	Large head, fat	Good natured, jolly, sociable,
Asthenic/ Leptosomatic	Lean and thin	Not sociable, shy and reserved, sensitive, pessimistic
Athletic	Balanced body	Optimistic, adjusting, energetic, determined, adventurous
Dysplastic	Rare and ugly, disproportionate body due to hormonal imbalance	Deviant behaviour and personality

16.Explain the ayurvedic doshas.

The Ayurvedic Doshas are the same as Sheldon’s somatotypes – Vata being Ectomorph, Pita being Mesomorph and Kapha being Endomorph.

17.List the advantages and disadvantages of the type theories.

Advantages:

• Type theories have their own value in the sense that they were the first attempt to assess personality as well as to identify the characteristics of personality patterns.
• They consider human nature as a whole. So, to comprehend a person’s personality structure entirely, typological approach is helpful.
• They are the simplistic methods for rapid evaluation of an individual’s personality characteristics very fast.

Disadvantages:

• As human nature is changeable according to the evolution process, people cannot be categorized and put under a particular type permanently.
• Types are discrete, discontinuous and cannot be put on a continuous scale.
• There are a number of types in typology, some of which are not found in real world.

18.Explain Gordan Allport’s Trait theory.

Allport used factor analysis to find the traits which combine to form normal personalities.

There are mainly five to ten traits which determine the person’s uniqueness. These are called central traits.

Other traits that are relatively weaker and less important and have less impact on person’s behaviour and only appear in certain situations are called the secondary traits.

Besides that, each person has a special trait that are rare but dominating and such traits are called cardinal traits.

Another important concept of Allport’s theory is Functional autonomy. This concept proposes that behaviour patterns that have been acquired initially for one purpose, can be used for other purposes later on. For example, the child who learns to read to please his parents initially, can later in life come to enjoy reading himself.

19.Explain Raymond Cattell’s Trait theory.

Raymond Cattell suggested that traits are the fundamental components of personality. He classified traits into the following four categories:

• Surface trait- Traits which are recognized by overt behaviour are called surface traits. Such as curiosity, integrity, honesty, nervousness, etc
• Source trait – Source traits are the roots of all behaviours as they determine the underlying structure of personality. It means that surface traits stem from source traits. Cattell identified 16 of them such as calm and stable, trusting vs suspicious, etc.
• Common traits – There are certain traits which are generally found widely among all groups or mostly common in all, such as honesty, aggression, cooperation, etc.
• Unique traits – The traits which are uniquely found in the person and which makes him different from rest, such as emotional reactions, spiritedness, etc.

20.Explain the Big five/ Five Factor Model by Paul Costa and Robert McCrae.

There are big five key or central dimensions of personality (e.g. Costa and McCrae). These are sometimes labelled as the big five, and they can be described as follows:

• Openness: A dimension ranging from imaginative, witty, and having broad interests at one end to down-to-earth, simple, and having narrow interests at the other.
• Conscientiousness: A dimension ranging from well-organized, careful, self-disciplined responsible and precise at one end to disorganized, impulsive, careless and undependable at the other.
• Extraversion: A dimension ranging from energetic, enthusiastic, sociable, and talkative at one end to retiring, sober, reserved, silent, and cautious at the other.
• Agreeableness: A dimension ranging from good-natured, cooperative, trusting and helpful at one end to irritable, suspicious, and uncooperative at the other. 
• Neuroticism (sometimes labelled Emotional Stability): A dimension ranging from poised, calm, composed and not hypochondriacal at one end, to nervous, anxious, high strung and hypochondriacal at the other.

21.List the criticism of the trait theories.

• The trait approach is very descriptive.
• They do not state how the traits develop, or what the significance of the traits are.

22.Explain Freud’s Levels of consciousness.

Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of mind- the conscious, preconscious and the unconscious.

He compared the conscious level to the tip of the iceberg that can be seen. The unconscious is represented by the portion of the iceberg that remain submerged or hidden under water. The preconscious is compared to that portion of the iceberg that remain submerged but may become afloat. Freud pointed out that the realm of the conscious mind includes our current thoughts and whatever we are experiencing at a given moment. The preconscious contains thoughts and feelings that a person is not currently aware of, but which can be brought to consciousness. It is the gateway between the conscious and unconscious that controls the passage of thoughts, urges, ideas, etc., between the two realms. Finally, beneath the preconscious domain, lies the maximum portion of our mind, called unconscious. Our thoughts, desires and impulses, of which we largely remain unaware, are concealed in this unconscious sphere of the mind.

23.Explain Freud’s structure of personality.

Functions	Principles
Id: This component of personality concerns with Immediate gratification of needs or instinctual drives.	Pleasure Principle: Immediate satisfaction of the needs which give pleasure is the sole motivation for the behaviour.
Ego: This component of personality considers external reality in the expression of instinctive behaviours and aggressive urges that arise from id.	Reality Principle: The ego plays the role of mediator between id and superego, by considering the external consequences of behaviours arising from the impulses originating from the ‘id’
Super ego: This component of personality represents the conscience or the sense of right and wrong that the person has acquired from his elders, society, culture, etc.	Morality Principle: According to this principle, superego struggles to establish moral constraints upon instinctual pleasure-seeking drives or behaviors.

24.Explain Freud’s psychosexual stages of personality.

According to Sigmund Freud, there is an innate sequence of stages through which all human beings pass. At each stage pleasure is focused on a different region of the body.

Stage	Age	Erogenous zone	Major development	Fixation		Successful resolution
Oral	Birth to 1.5	Mouth	Breast feeding, bottle drinking	Receptive- when too much was given: child very dependent	Aggressive- when too little: child became aggressive and dominating	Less dependence on caretakers, more independent, develop a sense of trust.
Anal	1.5 to 3	Anal	Toilet training	Retentive- parents were too harsh: child mean, stubborn and obsessively tidy.	Expulsive- parents were relaxed: child was messy, rebellious and emotional	Sense of accomplishment, pride, productive and creative.
Phallic	3 to 6	Genitals	Resolving Oedipus/Electra complex. This is the boy having a sexual desire for mother and girl for fathers. Boys – getting over castration anxiety	Attention seeking behaviour, unrealistic ambitions, son loves mom more than dad and daughter loves dad more than mom.		Start seeing their parents as role models.
Latency	6 to 12	None	Defence mechanism, person understanding oneself	Self-isolated, prefer company of their own or of the same gender, hate company of the opposite gender.		Social skills, values, relations with peers are developed.
Genital	Puberty to adulthood	Genitals	Reaching full sexual maturity	Self-love, unnecessary duration of time spent in beautifying themselves.		Well behaved, warm and caring. One has the adult capacity to combine lust with affection.

25.Explain Karen Horney as a Neo-Freudian and her theories.

Karen Horney was a Neo- Freudian who agreed with some of his theories like the level of consciousness, structure of personality but also disagreed with quite a few.  Such as his theory of woman having Penis envy but she stated that girls didn’t have penis envy in fact guys had womb envy, the ability to give life. 

She also gave a theory of personality of an individual based on their childhood relationships. The child understands that he/ she is weak, powerless and needs parental care and protection to survive. This gives rise to the basic anxiety. If the parents are loving and reliable, they can foster a sense of security in the child, if they are irresponsible, indifferent and rejecting, they can make the child feel more insecure. The parental behaviour that makes the child feel insecure and anxious, also gives rise to basic hostility. However, this hostility is repressed as it cannot be directly manifested to the parents.

This repression increases the child’s anxiety. Thus, the child feels anxious for their behavior and also feels hostile towards them. As a consequence, he or she relies on one of the three following models or styles of social behavior:

• Moving towards others (passive style): The child seeks security by being a people pleaser. To gain the love and approval of others, they are inclined to do whatever the others wish them to do. It results in total repression of basic hostility and tends to make the individual feel exploited and unhappy.
• Moving against others (aggressive style): The child tries to protect himself or herself by dominating and overpowering others. Although basic hostility is expressed, but there is a denial of basic anxiety. So, the feelings of weakness and anxiety remain unresolved.
• Moving away from others (withdrawn style): The child withdraws himself or herself from a social relationship to protect him or her from the pain of social relations. This deprives the person from the opportunities for growth in the social realm.

26.Explain Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial stages of development. (what, age, virtue, favorable and unfavorable, correspondent to psychosexual stages)

Erik Erikson’s theory deals with development across the entire life span. Erikson believes that each stage of life is marked by a specific crisis or conflict between competing tendencies only if individuals negotiate each of these hurdles successfully can they continue to develop in a normal healthy manner.

Stage	Age	Conflict	Compare	Basic virtue	Favourable	Un-favourable
1	Birth – 1.5	Trust vs mistrust	Oral	Hope	Faith in environment and future events and trusting other people	Suspicion, fear of future events
2	1.5 – 3	(self-control) Autonomy vs shame/doubt	Anal	Will	Sense of self-control	Developing shame and doubt in oneself
3	3 – 5	Initiative vs guilt	Phallic	Purpose	To initiate one’s own activity	To be all alone and develop a sense of guilt.
4	5 – 12	Industry vs inferiority	Latency	Competency	To learn how do things work.	To develop a sense of inferiority in understanding.
5	12 – 18	Ego identity vs role confusion	Genital	Fidelity (loyalty)	To identity oneself as unique and an integrated individual	To be confused over who we really are.
6	18 – 40	Intimacy vs isolation		Love	To engage in romantic relations and commitments	Inability in form romantic relations.
7	40 – 65	Generativity vs self-absorption/stagnation		Care	Concern for people	Self-concerned only
8	65 – +	Ego integrity vs despair		Wisdom	Meaningful life acceptance and being in peace with oneself	Dissatisfaction with life.

27.What is self – actualization?

Self-actualization – a state in which a person has reached their fullest true potential.

28.Explain Maslow’s Humanistic theory.

Abraham Maslow suggested the concept of a need’s hierarchy. This concept suggests that human needs exist in a hierarchy, ranging from Physiological needs, on the bottom through safety needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs, and finally self-actualization needs at the top.

According to Maslow, lower order needs must be satisfied before we can turn to more complex, higher order needs. He has devoted much of his attention to the study of people who are psychologically healthy. These individuals have self-actualization – a state in which they have reached their fullest true potential.

Self-actualized people accept themselves for what they are; they recognize their shortcomings as well as their strengths. Being in touch with their own personalities, they are less inhibited and less likely to conform than most of us. Self-actualized people are well aware of the rules imposed by society but feels greater freedom to ignore them than most persons.

Finally, self-actualized persons sometimes have what Maslow describes as peak experiences – instances in which they have powerful feelings of unity with the universe and feel tremendous waves of power and wonder. Such experiences appear to be linked to personal growth for after them individuals report feeling more spontaneous, more appreciative of life and less concerned with the problems of everyday life. E.g. Albert Einstein

29.Explain Rogers Humanistic theory.

Carl Rogers stated that human beings show many positive characteristics and move, over the course of their lives towards becoming fully functioning persons. He suggested that they are people who strive to experience life to the fullest, who live in the here and now, and who trust their own feelings. They are sensitive to the needs and rights of others, but they do not allow society’s standards to shape their feelings or actions to an excessive degree. Fully functioning people aren’t saints; they can and do act in ways they later regret. But throughout life, their actions are dominated by constructive impulses. They are in close touch with their own values and feelings and experience life more deeply than most other persons.

He explained that individuals based on the beliefs that they have about their own characteristics develop an idea about themselves which is knows as self-concept.

If, however the self-concept does not match with the reality then an anxiety is generated. Lesser the gap between self-concept and real self (congruence) more adjusted the person is and vice versa.

To cope with anxiety of incongruence, people look for defense processes such as distortion, i.e., changing our perceptions of reality so that they are consistent with our self-concept. For example, girl who has a self-concept of being indecent but is overprotected by her parents might think that their behavior is normal parental care.

Another defense process is denial; she may refuse to admit to herself that as a result of being babied, she is indeed losing her independence.

In the short run, such tactics can be successful; they help reduce anxiety. Ultimately, however, they produce sizable gaps between an individual’s self-concept and reality. For instance, the girl may cling to the belief that she is independent when in fact as a result of her parents’ treatment, she is becoming increasingly helpless.

The larger such gaps, Rogers contents, the greater an individual’s maladjustment – and personal unhappiness.

Rogers suggested that distortions in the self-concept are common, because most people grow up in an atmosphere of conditional positive regard. That is, they learn that others, such as their parents, will approve of them only when they behave in certain ways and express certain feelings. As a result, many people are forced to deny the existence of various impulses and feelings, and their self-concepts become badly distorted.

Rogers suggests that therapists can help accomplish this goal by placing individuals in an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard – a setting in which they will be accepted by the therapist, no matter what they say or do. Such conditions are provided by client-centered therapy, a form of therapy.

30.What are social learning theories?

Social learning theories focus on learning by observing the outer world.

31.Explain Bandura’s Social learning theory. (Identification and explanation of concepts in each theoretical framework).

In his social cognitive theory, Albert Bandura places great emphasis on what he terms as the self-system – the cognitive process by which a person perceives, evaluates and regulates his or her own behavior so that it is appropriate in a given situation.

They engage in self-reinforcement, patting themselves when they attain their goals.

Another important feature of Bandura’s theory is its emphasis on observational learning, a form of learning in which individuals acquire both information and new forms of behavior through observing others.

Bandura’s theory that has received most attention recent research is his concept of self- efficacy – an individual’s belief that he or she can perform some behavior or task successfully.

Self-efficacy has been found to play a role in success on many tasks, (e.g. Maurer and Pierce 1998) in health. Generalized beliefs about their task related capabilities can be viewed as important aspects of personality.

32.List the ad and disadvantages of the social learning theories.

• Widely accepted
• Cognitive factors influencing behaviour not considered

33.What are personality tests?

Personality tests help to modify the weakness of an individual’s personality, to diagnose behavioral disorders, selection of people to different jobs or students to various academic courses.

34.What is a questionnaire?

This is a technique for obtaining information by asking subjects to read a list of written questions and check off specific answers. Example, open-ended questionnaire item such as “describe your attitude to life”.

35.What is an inventory?

A personality inventory is essentially a standard set of questions about some aspects of individuals’ life history, feeling or preference or activities, presented in a standard way and scored with a standard scoring key.   Example, MMPI

36.Explain MMPI.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most popular and widely used personality inventory to measure psychopathology and personality structure of an adult. It was developed by Starke R. Hathaway and J.C. McKinley at the University of Minnesota. This test was later revised and it was called MMPI-2.

It contains 567 test items and takes 2 hours to complete. The test is designed for individual’s age 18 and older. The MMPI has 10 clinical scales that are used to indicate different psychological conditions.

Scale	Description	What it measures
1	Hs – Hypochondriasis	Excessive concern with bodily or somatic sensations.
2	D- Depression	Pessimistic, hopeless, slow actions.
3	HY- Hysteria	Physical symptoms like blindness, paralysis, vomiting are present without any physiological reason. Hysteria is an unconscious means of escaping from emotional problems.
4	Pd- Psychopathic Deviate	Disregard for society’s rules, shallow emotions
5	Mf- Masculinity/Femininity	How rigidly a person conforms to very stereotypical masculine or feminine roles
6	Pa- Paranoia	Low level of trust, suspiciousness, delusions of persecution or grandeur
7	Pt- Psych asthenia	Worry, anxiety, tension, doubts, obsessiveness, compulsive behaviour, indecisiveness
8	Sc- Schizophrenia	Odd thinking, social alienation, hallucinations and delusions
9	Ma- Hypomania	High level of excitability, flight of ideas, overactivity
10	Si- Social Introversion	Feeling shy, no interest in others, feeling of insecurity

The MMPI2 also has several validity scales that are designed to determine to what extent people are trying to fake their answers. If persons taking the test score high on these validity scales, their responses to the clinical scales must be interpreted with special caution.

• ‘ ?’ or question scale: It measures how many questions the teste has left unanswered on test.
• ‘K’ or correction scale: It measures defensiveness or guardedness.
• ‘L’ or lie scale: It measures whether an individual is trying to look good.
• ‘F’ or infrequency scale: It measures how much a person’s responses deviate from the general population, i.e., how infrequent the answers are when compared to others.

• TRIN Scale: The True Response Inconsistency Scale was developed to detect patients who respond inconsistently. This section consists of 23 paired questions that are opposite of each other.
• VRIN Scale: The Variable Response Inconsistency Scale is another method developed to detect inconsistent responses.
• Fb Scale: This scale is composed of 40 items that less than 10% of normal respondents support. High scores on this scale sometimes indicate that the respondent stopped paying attention and began answering questions randomly.

37.What are projective techniques?

They are an indirect method developed to study unconscious motivation, latent possibilities and undetermined conflict areas which determine the personality structure.

38.Explain Rorschach Ink-Blot test.

The projective technique projects the subject characteristics through processes, needs, anxieties and conflicts. The subject consciously projects his/her own desires, hopes, fears which are repressed. The Rorschach Ink Blot Test was developed by Hermann Rorschach

Test description –

It consists of 10 cards on which there are ink blots. Five are black and grey and two cards are red, in addition to grey and white and the last three are multicoloured. The cards are bilaterally symmetrical. The shapes are completely unstructured and the shape of the blots do not have any specific meaning.

Administration of the Tests-

• Cards are presented to the subject with proper instructions asking the subject to say what he sees in it, what it looks like to him, etc.
• No time limit: Can give as many responses as possible.
• The position in which the cards are being held, emotional expressions and other factors are noted.

Scoring –

It is categorized into four: Location, Contents, Originality, Determinants (COLD)

1) Location – is referred to the part of the blot

• W- indicates the subject has seen the card as a whole.
• w-indicates that the subject has failed to see the problem as a whole and focuses on specific parts.
• d- indicates focus on minor details or less important components of the blot.
• D- indicates focus on major details
• S- indicates the subject’s response to the white space within the blot.

2)Contents – is referred to what the response contains

• H – Human forms
• A – Animal forms
• Ad – Animal detail
• Hd – Human detail
• N – Natural objects like, rivers, green fields
• O – Inanimate objects like Lampshade, pot,

3) Originality – refers to either popular or unusual response for each of the 10 cards

• P – popular response
• O – unique/ original response

4)Determinants- refers to how the blot is seen or perceived.

• F – Form of the blot.
• C – its colour
• M – its perceived movement
• K – its shading

Interpretation –

• W more than d or D in number shows that person is more intelligent and mature.
• More of C then M indicates extrovert nature.
• More of M than K indicates introversion.
• More of K responses shows anxious, depressed attitude with the feeling of inferiority.
• More M shows that the subject has a strong imaginative power.

Criticisms-

• Administrative response varies from person to person
• Interpretation and scoring are very subjective.

39.Explain TAT.

Thematic Apperception Test also known as TAT is used to assess personality. It is a test that consists of perception of a certain picture in a Thematic manner (revealing imaginative themes). It was developed by H.A. Murray and C.D. Morgan.

Test material –

It consists of 31 cards that have 30 pictures of life situations with human beings and 1 blank card. 10 of these cards are meant for males, 10 for females and 10 for both. In this way, the maximum number of pictures used with any subject is 20. The test is usually administered in two sessions, using 10 pictures in each session and each card is shown one at a time. It is a story telling test.

Administration-

The pictures are vague and indefinite. The subject is told clearly that this is a test of creative imagination and that there is no right and wrong response. He has to make up a story for each of the pictures presented to him without spending any time to think although there is no time limit. He has to take care of the following aspects while explaining the story: (CHLG)

1. What is going on in the picture?
2. What has led to this scene?
3. What would happen after this?
4. what are the characters thinking and feeling?

In making up the stories, the subject unconsciously projects so many characteristics of his personality. There is no time to think. Therefore, the stories express his own life – natural desires, likes and dislikes, ambitions, emotions, sentiments, etc.

Scoring and interpretation-

It is done in the following way: (PATHOS TC)

1. Hero of the story – shows his personality.
2. Theme of the story – signifies the nature of the theme or plot used.
3. The style of the story – Length of the story, language used, direct or indirect expression, forced or poor expression, organisation of the contents, originality and creativity, etc.
4. The content of the story – depicts the interests, sentiments, attitudes, manner (reality or fantasy) the behaviour has been expressed and inner-state of the mind.
5. Test situation as a whole – The subject’s reaction to the whole situation to be noted.
6. Particular emphasis or omissions – The omission, addition, distortion and attention to particular details.
7. Attitude towards authority and sex.
8. Outcome – Conclusion of the story whether it is happy, unhappy, comedy, etc.

As a whole, the recurring themes and features contribute towards interpretation.  Its criticisms are that the interpreter must be very skilled, not adopted to various cultures.

40.Ad and dis of projective techniques.

Advantages:

• Interpretations yield important data about the chief problems of the subject which lie in the unconscious.
• Revels the subject unconscious desires   

Disadvantages:

• Scoring system of TAT not well developed
• No standardized system no giving instructions

41.What is Behavioral Analysis?

Behavioral analysis is done to assess someone’s personality in different situations.

1.interview: interview is a method by which an individual is assessed through the answers to a series of specific questions. the questions asked are in-depth. Two kinds of interviews are asked:

• Structured interview – a structured interview has very specific questions which are asked following the specific protocol or procedure. the answers are very objective. rating scales are used.
• Unstructured interview – this has open ended questions to which the answers can be given in different ways. when conducted by a skilled interviewer this can help to understand and reveal an interviewee’s personality.

2.observation: is used most often to understand a person both by laymen and professionals. the clinical psychologist may gain a lot of insight by observing the person with his or her family members and other visitors in a carefully designed observation session. this process can also be very time consuming. data is invalid in these conditions: – when data collected is not interpreted by a professional as it can easily be interpreted incorrectly. – the interviewee others behave spontaneously due to the presence of clinical psychologist.

3.behavioral ratings: people who know and have interacted extensively with the individual undergoing assessment for a considerable length of timer are asked to rate his or her behavior. The rater has to rate the individual on some categories by either description or numbers.

Rater’s overall assessment of the individual can be coloured by his liking or disliking of the individuals one single trait which will give rise to what is called the Halo effect. for example if the rater dislikes the individuals tendency of not meeting the deadline he might also get rate the work submitted as low quality due to the Halo effect.

some writers have middle category bias and tend to place individuals rated in the middle of the scale, while others have an extreme response bias and always give a high or low rating avoiding middle categories.

4.nomination: it is a process of Peer assessment use among individuals who have interacted with each other for a long time. They are asked to nominate one or more people of the group with whom they would want to work with if the situation requires and give reasons for their choice. A proper analysis can result in understanding the qualities of the person. It’s disadvantage is that it can be affected by personal bias.

5.situation test – this test involves role-playing to understand how the individual responds to certain situations, mostly stressful. The individual is asked to complete a task with the team, where the team members are instructed to be uncooperative. The individual’s behaviour is observed and a verbal report on how he felt is also taken from him. this situation can be realistic or through video play. this test is known as a situation stress test.