1.What is thinking?

it is an implicit cognitive functioning that provides concepts, ideas or notions for solving various problems in life as well as achieving certain goals.

2.Explain the nature of thinking.

thinking is a basic cognitive process which involves analysis, organization, reorganization and manipulation of information that is received. it is stored by means of language and later by various symbols and mental images. while thinking, we process all the symbolic representations to think about various information. thinking has a wide range from concrete to abstract. in the preliminary level it works on sensory perception then rises to imaginative thinking and abstract thinking which works on any sensory perception. thinking can swing or shift from one subject to another within a very brief span of time.

3.Explain the elements of thinking. – visual images, concepts(Q6), language

In order to understand the nature and process of thinking, the elements of thinking must be understood which are the following:

images are mental pictures of different people, animals or objects which an individual perceives through sensory experiences of the past. these mental images are symbolized in our mind to carry out the thinking process. It also includes imagination and other creative inputs. images are also used for finding out solutions and overcoming obstacles while achieving our aims. it is found that images are formed through visual, auditory or kinesthetics experiences. For example, if you see a flower or smell a flower or touch a flower, it creates an image of the flower in our mind and stores it as an experience.

language is most significant and developed cognitive achievement of human beings. language includes both a well-articulated vocal speech consisting of some words, sentences and phrases and an unarticulated sub vocal part consisting of sign language, physical gestures, postures, body language and eye contact. Besides, language in the form of writings, illustrations, diagrams also helps us to give way to a thinking process.  the following are the elements of language:

sound is the major element of vocal part of language. each language has a number of basic sounds though most of the sounds of all languages are alike. vocal cord, tongue, lips and mouth all together in combination generate audible frequency known as sound.

Syntax is the rule of using an infinite number of meaningful words in verbal language to give a meaningful expression to speech. there is always a syntax in every language which helps to generate speech flawlessly and effortlessly. for example, what you doing are? in this the syntax rule is not maintained. the rule of Syntax and role of grammar are two different rules.

4.What do you mean by semantics?

semantics is the content of language that is meaningful. semantics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the meaning of words and language including the symbolic use of language too.

5.Explain the interdependence of language and thought.

language and thought, though two different processes are interdependent on each other. the content of thought is determined by language which is termed as linguistic relativity hypothesis. strong believers of this process postulate that individuals thought is entirely dependent on his language, an idea termed as linguistic determinism.

The process of thinking starts off in a child before his language development. thinking is not primary dependent on language at the beginning the latter affects the individual symbolic thinking.

At around 2 years of age when the child starts to speak a language, he starts expressing his thoughts through his speech in a rational way. this is when language and thinking become interdependent.

So when language and thinking come together we have verbal thought and rational speech

6.What is a concept?

concept is defined as some general categorization of objects, events, Ideas, situations or qualities. this categorization is made on the basis of some common features of these items in order to understand and remember them easily. For example, category of motor cars which is further divided into different categories of concepts like wheels or engine.

(Concepts are not formed about concrete object but also about many abstract ideas qualities of events such as love hatred happiness satisfaction accept these are usually stored in the memory as mental representations, we are the products of understanding and logical thinking they play a vital role in the development of for the higher order thinking abilities.)

Types of concepts:

Simple concept are concepts that are formed on the basis of a single and common feature of any particular object or event. they are formed by normal observation of features in the surroundings. they provide preliminary ideas about any object or event. for example, when the concept of particular colour such as yellow is formed in the child. the child’s eyes identify all the yellow colours of flowers or fruits as yellow regardless of their characteristics. Simple concept slowly transforms into advance and complex concept.

Complex concept usually involves identification, understanding, generalization and differentiation of the common characteristics of various items, events and ideas. The formation of complex concepts requires intelligence and logical thinking. It is utilized in higher order thinking skills like reasoning, creative thinking and abstract thinking. There are two types:

a) conjunctive concepts refer to those concepts which have two or more characteristics to define any object. For example, the concept of landlady, who may be defined by two characteristics simultaneously- as a woman and as an owner of house or land.

b) disjunctive concepts refer to those concepts which have any one of the two or more characteristics or all the characteristics to define any object. For example, concept of ice cream. It may have chocolate, or it may have fruits only. It may also be a blend of both chocolate and fruits.

Natural concept are some concepts which are developed naturally through direct observation of  experiences and interactions with the natural world. for example concepts of various things in our environment like men and women, food, etc. each person has some natural inclination to learn something easily and quickly. natural concepts are developed through direct and indirect experience. for example a person living in Khasmir had direct experience of snowfall but a person living in Dubai has indirect experience through pictures of falling snow. they are dependent on the existing or previous experiences which are known as prototype, I.e., the original pattern to which the new items are Incorporated

Artificial concept is that concept which has a unique and precise set of rules and features. on the basis of such rules the concept is built. the examples include grammar rules and mathematical formulae. these are also called logical concepts as they are easy to define an elaborate. they are very clear and unambiguous in nature. our everyday concepts a much more difficult than artificial concepts

7.What is the importance of a concept?

concepts are the mental groups or categories that help us to organise and classify objects, events or ideas based on the understanding that each object, event or Idea has a set of common and relevant features.

8.What is convergent thinking?

convergent thinking is very logical and focused. individuals think rationally step by step to reach a particular solution that is fixed initially just after comprehending a problem. the outcome of the convergent thinking is very conventional and usual. it leads to the standard solution. it works best in situations where a single best correct answer exists. For example, If the copy machine breaks at work, a convergent thinker would call a technician right away to fix the copy machine.

its characteristics are: (1) Thinking should be focused towards reaching a solution. [2] Thinking needs to be continued until a solution is found. [3] Thinking should be logical and stepwise. [4] Thinking does not require any significant creativity.

9.What is divergent thinking?

divergent thinking is a typical process to solve problems, where several ways of possible solutions are proposed in an effort to find the suitable one. it is a subjective process where different ways of solutions are derived through subjective evaluation. this process is very loosely organized and partially directed. it is a spontaneous and a free-flowing process. it works best in problems that are open ended and allows creativity. the outcome of the thought process is very unconventional and creative in nature. it requires brainstorming ideas to solve a problem in multiple ways. For example, If the copy machine breaks at work, a divergent thinker would try to determine the cause of the copy machine’s malfunction and assess various ways to fix the problem.

its characteristics are: (1) Thinking is required to derive multiple solutions. [2] It involves searching of several possible solutions to one problem. [3] Each solution is subjective, unconventional and innovative. 4) the thought process is loosely organized.

10.What is creative thinking?

creative thinking is that process of Thinking which produces a novel, unusual solution rather than conventional or general solution. it requires a high level of an imagination. it is applied to combine and connect different types of unrelated events and eventually generate an unusual and new kind of solution. For example,

its characteristics are:

• Generating ideas: The creative thinkers can generate a large number of solutions to any problem which are unique and unusual.
• Self-expressive: They can express their ideas very well and are communicative.
• curiosity: is refers to as having a strong desire to learn or know something

11.What is goal-oriented thinking?

Goal- oriented thinking refers to a skill that enables an individual to improve a situation by fixing a goal, measuring the progress towards the goal and evaluating the outcomes. It is the cognitive disposition to set a target for a particular outcome which will serve a useful purpose. it is also important to set a realistic goal depending on the individual’s aptitude, ability and the situations. Unrealistic setting of a goal may lead to an irrational approach towards goal- oriented thinking. as a result, the thinking becomes successful and the persons mental health may be disturbed. Goal-oriented thinking sometimes lead to a critical problem which is known as tunnel vision., the tendency to focus exclusively on a single a limited view. For example,

12.What is aimless thinking?

aimless thinking is a continuous process through one’s life. it is the cognitive ability of thinking where there is no movement, and the mind remains devoid of any kind of thinking. aimless thinking is always present in our mind but if it does not have a proper subject to focus upon, then it flows aimlessly and hinders all types of psychological and other development of human beings. aimless thinking may lead to developing many negative habits and Lifestyle in an individual. every aimless thought is a wastage of time and energy. An aimless mind or Thinking never ends with the prosperous solution and successful achievement while goal-oriented thinking assures success.

13.What is reasoning?

Reasoning refers to the ability of the individual to think in a logical way towards a particular goal to serve his/her adjustive demands.

14.What are the different types of reasoning?

there are two types of reasoning, inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning: inductive reasoning works in the way of generating a rule, fact or a principle. it shows logically that if a statement or fact is true in one particular case, or in two or three similar cases, it will be true for all other similar cases. in this way if a statement or a fact is found true in multiple premises, all these can be combined to obtain a General conclusion. for example, Seema, Shekhar and Bobby feel tension before examination. Therefor examination is stressful.

Deductive reasoning: deductive reasoning is just the opposite to inductive reasoning. it starts with a generalized principal and by verifying it, one may reach to a simple fact. this is also used to verify the already established principles or already discovered facts and hypothesis. this way of testing hypothesis or determining the logical validity of a hypothesis is called the deductive reasoning. for example, examination is stressful. Seema is going to appear for an examination. therefore, she is stressed.

15.What are the common errors in reasoning?

that different kinds of errors which may occur during the reasoning process. They are the following:

Faulty premises: faulty premises are originated from the false assumptions. the concepts or general ideas about objects, events or persons are not always accurate. for example, one’s feeling of hatred towards a person belonging to another caste or religion is a result of faulty premises. if the concept is not correct and adequate, the conclusion of the reasoning process will end in error. the primary concept should not be false or vague. it should be correct and clear to The Thinker. for example, if a car is expensive there might be a concept of its engines being powerful. this may not be true, features and electronic devices can be the reason for the high price.

Biases: biases are basically the preconceived ideas that result in systematic errors in reasoning. they are because of cognitive errors. they are tendencies to think in certain ways that may mislead the process reasoning. it may lead to systematic deviation from a standard, rational judgement and thinking process.

Hindsight error: Hindsight error is a person’s tendency to think that a recently occurred events outcome or result has been properly speculated by him/her. after the occurrence of an event people often think that they had predicted the outcome although they may not be there may not be any significant evidence present for this feeling. this error of reasoning is also called knew-it-all-along effect. this is observed very commonly, when after watching the result of a most unpredictable occurrence and outcome of an event, an individual declares that he/she knew-it-all-along. For example, a sudden downpour hits a city, few people say that they knew all along that it would rain that day.

Rationalization: rationalization is an error in reasoning which is often used to the defend self. when a person feels that he/she has performed an inappropriate task, he or she tries to justify his or her behavior with the logical reasoning. this faulty reasoning appears to encourage irrational and unacceptable behavior, motives and feelings. For example, when a student is unable to perform well in an examination, he/she may rationalize the outcome to improper correction by the teacher. Rationalization thus distorts the process of reasoning by deforming the actual facts and reasons.

Fallacy of single cause: fallacy of a single cause is actually an erroneous belief that there is a simple root cause for an event. however, there may not actually be a single cause the combination of numerous hidden causes. it is also known as complex cause of reduction fallacy. It may look like that the outcome is determined by a single cause or effect, but multiple factors play an important role. The single or prime cause is shown larger among all other factors. For example, different publishers claim the huge decrease in sale of books on reduced reading habits of new generations but there are many other factors like e-books, social media, etc.

16.How can reasoning be improved?

there are a variety of ways in several strategies to correct or change the faulty reasoning skills which are the following:

• Avoiding errors: to improve the reasoning ability one has to check or avoid the errors. in order to avoid errors, individual should be aware about his or her personal errors and biases during the reasoning and rectify them by changing his or her thought process. Following are the ways to avoid errors: – one one should take action on the basis of ideas gathered and viewed from different perspectives. – An individual should stop overgeneralizing any view, belief or fact. – a person should not make assumptions of predictions regarding anything abruptly. – reasoning can be improved by avoiding a catastrophic thinking of a various situations in life. – one should learn to keep his or her mind open to receive various information, ideas and thoughts. – A person should get rid of several kind of logical fallacies, misleading notions and erroneous beliefs through practice and proper judgement of acquired knowledge. – they may use various therapeutic techniques.
• Examining assumptions and ambiguities: An individual should carry out the evaluation of the hypothesis of belief for proper justification of the same. the ability to transform various concepts and ideas into a questionable analytical form is essential for the functioning of the effective reasoning process. the first fundamental step in reasoning is to eliminate the ambiguities regarding the goal or solution. this process is complex and prone to errors. the correct analysis and examination of initial concept or assumptions gives way for enhancing the accuracy of reasoning.
• Guarding against emotion: A person’s reasoning ability is seriously hampered during the phase of excessive emotions such as anxiety, stress, tension anger or unhappiness. Emotional activities are sudden, loosely organized and uncontrolled in most of the cases. on the contrary reasoning activities are controlled, systematic, organized and preplanned. in situations are extreme emotional states, the facility for rational or logical thinking does not work properly. therefore, emotion should be guarded by practicing some emotion controlling behavior. The following are a few ways to regulate emotions: – avoid situations that trigger unwanted emotions. – try physical techniques such as relaxation, exercises and yoga. – try to be positive and hopeful always

17.What is decision making?

decision making is a process of selection based on some criteria to choose one alternative among two or more possible alternatives.

18.List the steps in decision making.

decision making is an indispensable ability which is necessary both in personal and professional life. An effective decision-making help to achieve desired goals. this unique ability helps a person to select a suitable option from an array of options that guides him or her to reach the goal. the steps involved in decision making are as follows:

1.identification of the particular problem: the first step in making the right decision is recognizing the problem and deciding to address it. in this step the problem is thoroughly analysed and a few questions are asked

2.gathering relevant information: Gathering information is necessary to decide based on facts and data. this requires making a value judgement, determining what information is relevant to the decision at hand, along with how to utilize the relevant information to reach a decision.

3.identification of the options: once the person has a clear understanding of the problem at hand, he/she tries to identify the various solutions it is an internal preparation for judging each alternative from the perspective of fulfilling the requirement.

4.weighing the options: after identification of the options, it is essential to evaluate the feasibility, acceptability and desirability of each of the options. this will help to know which alternative is best.

5.choice among alternatives: after the judgement, the individual may become ready to select the best alternative or combination of alternatives

6.commitment to the decision: the individual once makes the choice must remain committed to it

7.review of decisions and its consequences: finally, after taking the decision, evaluation to be carried out to judge its correctness and extent to which it results in achieving the target.

19.What is problem solving?

problem solving is a process which involves deriving a solution to unique a novel situation or problem which cannot be obtained through use usual application of principles, concepts and past experiences.

20.List the steps in problem solving.

steps involved in problem solving are as follows:

1.identification or formulation of the problem: the various obstacles that hinder the person from reaching the target need to be identified.

2. Analyzing the elements of the problem: this analysis will help to find solutions in different unusual and unconventional ways. recognizing the problem will help to find the different but appropriate approach to solve it as a complex and Critical problem often requires a flexible approach and restructuring of the elements of the problem.

3.searching potential solutions: people use all the information available to them to find the solutions. more they can retrieve information; more they can formulate ways for the solutions.

4.evaluating possibilities of its solution: before applying the particular solution, an individual should evaluate each of his or her hypothetical situations carefully and find which is the most suitable want to reach the goal.

5.attempting appropriate solution: people choose the most effective option and implement in the most suitable way.

21.Explain the strategies of problem solving.

the following are the strategies of problem solving:

1.algorithm: it is a strategy which is defined as a set of step-by-step procedure that provides the correct answer to a particular problem. algorithms are logical procedures that ensure that one gets where he/she is trying to go. they tend to be carefully designed and complete in nature. they include logical steps and decision points allowing every assessment of a problem to be considered. for example, problem is to make a meaningful word by using three letters O, N, S. the algorithm will arrange these three letters In an order until the correct order is obtained which is SON. An advantage is it considers all the possibilities and their tentative outcomes while solving the problem. A disadvantage is that it is time consuming and the user may get fatigued.

2.Heuristics: heuristics approach is a cognitive approach with utilizes a mental shortcut in problem solving. the mental shortcut is either learnt informally or readily available means to solve any problem. It includes using of a Thumb Rule, a common guess, an intuitive adjustment, utilizing stereotypical pattern, using standard outlines and applying common sense. An advantage is that it helps meet the immediate goals and has enormous efficiency. Its disadvantage is that it is not guaranteed to provide the best or perfect solution. The heuristic problems are of two types: availability heuristic and representativeness heuristics.

Availability heuristic is what occurs in the mind unconsciously and operates under the principle that ‘if you can think of it, it must be important’. It is a metal shortcut that is used to make decisions on the basis of how quickly and easily information comes to mind. for example, illness such as diabetes and cancer kill more than twice the population than accidents. However, people tend to judge accidents as more dangerous and take more precautions against them. this is because media mostly aware us of the various accidents taking place.

Representativeness heuristics is a metal shortcut or Thumb Rule which is applied for making decisions about some uncertain events. it is based on the Thumb Rule that if an object, event or new experience shows more similarity to some typical examples of certain category, then the object, event or experience will likely belong to that category. It uses past experiences which guide the decision-making process. for example, if you look at two people and one of them is well dressed and the other has an untidy and clumsy appearance, we come to the decision that the first person may be rich and the other is not.

3.means end Analysis: means and analysis is a problem-solving strategy that usually compares the present situation and the situation individual wants to arrive at. Then it related the two and creates sub-goals to remove any difference. it may otherwise be called sub-goal technique.

4.analogy is a problem-solving technique were an individual uses his/her past experiences. we use these previously acquired information in solving various similar problems. it works most of the time unconsciously. it is mainly a comparing technique of problem solving by comparing two situations, we find out the similarity between the two situations and apply the knowledge of previous situation to solve the new one.

5.optimum expected utility: optimum expected utility involves the technique of making the optimal decision in case of some problem from a number of possibilities to obtain the expected or predictable value or utility. instead of applying common reasoning, sometimes people may use the preferences to choose, all though the outcome is uncertain. when an individual is asked to make a decision without knowing the exact outcome, he/she would make the decision under uncertainty. for example if a doctor comes across a patient whose disease is not figure out able, the doctor is to decide what optimal treatment to administer to the patient in expectation of best optimal value or utility, I.e., causing the disease

22.What is creative thinking?

creative thinking is the mental ability to produce a new, unconventional and novel solution instead of common and usual solutions for solving a problem or to reach a goal.

Components of Creative Thinking are the following:

1.intellectual aspect: this is the ability to produce idea.

2.motivational aspect: this refers to the preparedness to think of something new and to articulate this thought.

3.emotional aspect: it is the courage to think out of the box, to resist the pressure to conform and to take risk in achieving the goal.

23.List the stages of creative thinking.

The entire process of Creative Thinking can be divided into four stages which are the following:

1.preparation: in this stage the thinker sets a target.

2.Incubation: during this stage the creative thinker just gets his/her effort to persist with his/her ideas.

3.illumination: in the state, perfect solution comes to the mind suddenly, when the individual is busy thinking rather in a different way. this sudden flash a solution is known as aha experience.

4.verification: the illuminated idea is then evaluated and revised in the stage.